The algorithm of synthetic aperture radar automatic target recognition (SAR-ATR) is generally composed of the extraction of a set of features that transform the raw input into a representation, followed by a trainable classifier. The feature extractor is often hand designed with domain knowledge and can significantly impact the classification accuracy. By automatically learning hierarchies of features from massive training data, deep convolutional networks (ConvNets) recently have obtained state-of-the-art results in many computer vision and speech recognition tasks. However, when ConvNets was directly applied to SAR-ATR, it yielded severe overfitting due to limited training images. To reduce the number of free parameters, we present a new all-convolutional networks (A-ConvNets), which only consists of sparsely connected layers, without fully connected layers being used. Experimental results on the Moving and Stationary Target Acquisition and Recognition (MSTAR) benchmark data set illustrate that A-ConvNets can achieve an average accuracy of 99% on classification of ten-class targets and is significantly superior to the traditional ConvNets on the classification of target configuration and version variants.

Target Classification Using the Deep Convolutional Networks for SAR Images

The purpose of this paper is to survey and assess the state-of-the-art in automatic target recognition for synthetic aperture radar imagery (SAR-ATR). The aim is not to develop an exhaustive survey of the voluminous literature, but rather to capture in one place the various approaches for implementing the SAR-ATR system. This paper is meant to be as self-contained as possible, and it approaches the SAR-ATR problem from a holistic end-to-end perspective. A brief overview for the breadth of the SAR-ATR challenges is conducted. This is couched in terms of a single-channel SAR, and it is extendable to multi-channel SAR systems. Stages pertinent to the basic SAR-ATR system structure are defined, and the motivations of the requirements and constraints on the system constituents are addressed. For each stage in the SAR-ATR processing chain, a taxonomization methodology for surveying the numerous methods published in the open literature is proposed. Carefully selected works from the literature are presented under the taxa proposed. Novel comparisons, discussions, and comments are pinpointed throughout this paper. A two-fold benchmarking scheme for evaluating existing SAR-ATR systems and motivating new system designs is proposed. The scheme is applied to the works surveyed in this paper. Finally, a discussion is presented in which various interrelated issues, such as standard operating conditions, extended operating conditions, and target-model design, are addressed. This paper is a contribution toward fulfilling an objective of end-to-end SAR-ATR system design.

Automatic Target Recognition in Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery: A State-of-the-Art Review

It is a feasible and promising way to utilize deep neural networks to learn and extract valuable features from synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images for SAR automatic target recognition (ATR). However, it is too difficult to effectively train the deep neural networks with limited raw SAR images. In this paper, we propose a new approach to do SAR ATR, in which a multiview deep learning framework was employed. Based on the multiview SAR ATR pattern, we first present a flexible mean to generate adequate multiview SAR data, which can guarantee a large amount of inputs for network training without needing many raw SAR images. Then, a unique deep convolutional neural network containing a parallel network topology with multiple inputs is adopted. The features of input SAR images from different views will be learned by the proposed network layer by layer; meanwhile, the learned features from the distinct views are fused in different layers progressively. Therefore, the proposed framework is able to achieve a superior recognition performance, and requires only a small number of raw SAR images for network training samples generation. Experimental results have shown the superiority of the proposed framework based on the Moving and Stationary Target Acquisition and Recognition data set.

SAR Automatic Target Recognition Based on Multiview Deep Learning Framework

Statistical modeling is essential to SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) image interpretation. It aims to describe SAR images through statistical methods and reveal the characteristics of these images. Moreover, statistical modeling can provide a technical support for a comprehensive understanding of terrain scattering mechanism, which helps to develop algorithms for effective image interpretation and creditable image simulation. Numerous statistical models have been developed to describe SAR image data, and the purpose of this paper is to categorize and evaluate these models. We first summarize the development history and the current researching state of statistical modeling, then different SAR image models developed from the product model are mainly discussed in detail. Relevant issues are also discussed. Several promising directions for future research are concluded at last.

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/1/775/pdf

Statistical Modeling of SAR Images: A Survey

Deep architectures for classification and representation learning have recently attracted significant attention within academia and industry, with many impressive results across a diverse collection of problem sets. In this work we consider the specific application of Automatic Target Recognition (ATR) using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data from the MSTAR public release data set. The classification performance achieved using a Deep Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) on this data set was found to be competitive with existing methods considered to be state-of-the-art. Unlike most existing algorithms, this approach can learn discriminative feature sets directly from training data instead of requiring pre-specification or pre-selection by a human designer. We show how this property can be exploited to efficiently adapt an existing classifier to recognise a previously unseen target and discuss potential practical applications.

Deep convolutional neural networks for ATR from SAR imagery

A family of conditionally Gaussian signal models for synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery is presented, extending a related class of models developed for high resolution radar range profiles. This signal model is robust with respect to the variations of the complex-valued radar signals due to the coherent combination of returns from scatterers as those scatterers move through relative distances on the order of a wavelength of the transmitted signal (target speckle). The target type and the relative orientations of the sensor, target, and ground plane parameterize the conditionally Gaussian model. Based upon this model, algorithms to jointly estimate both the target type and pose are developed. Performance results for both target pose estimation and target recognition are presented for publicly released data from the MSTAR program.

SAR ATR performance using a conditionally Gaussian model

Many applications of object recognition in the presence of pose uncertainty rely on statistical models-conditioned on pose-for observations. The image statistics of three-dimensional (3-D) objects are often assumed to belong to a family of distributions with unknown model parameters that vary with one or more continuous-valued pose parameters. Many methods for statistical model assessment, for example the tests of Kolmogorov-Smirnov and K. Pearson, require that all model parameters be fully specified or that sample sizes be large. Assessing pose-dependent models from a finite number of observations over a variety of poses can violate these requirements. However, a large number of small samples, corresponding to unique combinations of object, pose, and pixel location, are often available. We develop methods for model testing which assume a large number of small samples and apply them to the comparison of three models for synthetic aperture radar images of 3-D objects with varying pose. Each model is directly related to the Gaussian distribution and is assessed both in terms of goodness-of-fit and underlying model assumptions, such as independence, known mean, and homoscedasticity. Test results are presented in terms of the functional relationship between a given significance level and the percentage of samples that wold fail a test at that level.

/pdf/quantitative-statistical-assessment-of-conditional-models-4kplb9r678.pdf

Quantitative statistical assessment of conditional models for synthetic aperture radar

The stochastic error characteristics of the Kinect sensing device are presented for each axis direction. Depth (z) directional error is measured using a flat surface, and horizontal (x) and vertical (y) errors are measured using a novel 3D checkerboard. Results show that the stochastic nature of the Kinect measurement error is affected mostly by the depth at which the object being sensed is located, though radial factors must be considered, as well. Measurement and statistics-based models are presented for the stochastic error in each axis direction, which are based on the location and depth value of empirical data measured for each pixel across the entire field of view. The resulting models are compared against existing Kinect error models, and through these comparisons, the proposed model is shown to be a more sophisticated and precise characterization of the Kinect error distributions.

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/14/9/17430/pdf

Statistical analysis-based error models for the Microsoft Kinect(TM) depth sensor.

The widespread need within corporate information systems (IS) divisions to migrate large quantities of data between data stores has spawned a family of commercial products, which are commonly referred to as extract-transform-load (ETL) tools. The focus of this paper is the development of engineering trade studies to be used for ETL tool evaluation. This approach: (1) Identifies selection criteria that are essential in the evaluation of an ETL tool, (2) Develops scenarios that examine each criterion, and (3) Develops quantitative measures useful for evaluating the various aspects of ETL usage. This approach generates replicable evaluation methods that can be used and modified by companies to address their own ETL product needs. With the results generated through such evaluations, companies will be able to make informed decisions and choose the best ETL tool for their purposes.

Engineering trade study: extract, transform, load tools for data migration

Parametric approaches to problems of inference from observed data often rely on assumed probabilistic models for the data which may be based on knowledge of the physics of the data acquisition. Given a rich enough collection of sample data, the validity of those assumed models can be assessed in a statistical hypothesis testing framework using any of a number of goodness-of-fit tests developed over the last hundred years for this purpose. Such assessments can be used both to compare alternate models for observed data and to help determine the conditions under which a given model breaks down. We apply three such methods, the (chi) 2 test of Karl Pearson, Kolmogorov's goodness-of-fit test, and the D'Agostino-Pearson test for normality, to quantify how well the data fit various models for synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images. The results of these tests are used to compare a conditionally Gaussian model for complex-valued SAR pixel values, a conditionally log-normal model for SAR pixel magnitudes, and a conditionally normal model for SAR pixel quarter-power values. Sample data for these tests are drawn from the publicly released MSTAR dataset.© (2001) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

https://www.ese.wustl.edu/~jao/Talks/ConferenceTalks/SPIE_3_2001_2_poster.pdf

Statistical assessment of model fit for synthetic aperture radar data

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