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Array signal processing

SUMMARY Analysis of seismic data suggests that hydrocarbon deposits are often associated with higher than usual values of attenuation, but this is generally ignored during amplitude-versus-offset (AVO) analysis. The effect can be modelled with equivalent medium theory based on the squirt flow concept, but the excess attenuation is associated with strong velocity dispersion. Consequently, when we study reflections from the interface between such an equivalent medium and an elastic overburden we find that the reflection coefficient varies with frequency. The impact of this variation depends on the AVO behaviour at the interface; class I reflections tend to be shifted to higher frequency while class III reflections have their lower frequencies amplified. We calculate synthetic seismograms for typical models using the reflectivity method for materials with frequency dependent velocities and attenuations, and find that these effects are predicted to be detectable on stacked data. Two field data sets show frequency anomalies similar to those predicted by the analysis, and we suggest that our modelling provides a plausible explanation of the observations.

/pdf/the-influence-of-fluid-sensitive-dispersion-and-attenuation-1eecvpr6vq.pdf

The influence of fluid-sensitive dispersion and attenuation on AVO analysis

Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) analysis is an efficient tool to obtain the vertical shear-wave profile. One of the key steps in the MASW method is to generate an image of dispersive energy in the frequency-velocity domain, so dispersion curves can be determined by picking peaks of dispersion energy. In this paper, we propose to image Rayleigh-wave dispersive energy by high-resolution linear Radon transform (LRT). The shot gather is first transformed along the time direction to the frequency domain and then the Rayleigh-wave dispersive energy can be imaged by high-resolution LRT using a weighted preconditioned conjugate gradient algorithm. Synthetic data with a set of linear events are presented to show the process of generating dispersive energy. Results of synthetic and real-world examples demonstrate that, compared with the slant stacking algorithm, high-resolution LRT can improve the resolution of images of dispersion energy by more than 50%.

Rayleigh-wave dispersive energy imaging using a high-resolution linear radon transform

Recent advances in parameter estimation and seismic processing have allowed incorporation of anisotropic models into a wide range of seismic methods. In particular, vertical and tilted transverse isotropy are currently treated as an integral part of velocity fields employed in prestack depth migration algorithms, especially those based on the wave equation. We briefly review the state of the art in modeling, processing, and inversion of seismic data for anisotropic media. Topics include optimal parameterization, body-wave modeling methods, P-wave velocity analysis and imaging, processing in the τ-p domain, anisotropy estimation from vertical-seismic-profiling (VSP) surveys, moveout inversion of wide-azimuth data, amplitude-variation-with-offset (AVO) analysis, processing and applications of shear and mode-converted waves, and fracture characterization. When outlining future trends in anisotropy studies, we emphasize that continued progress in data-acquisition technology is likely to spur transition from t...

Seismic anisotropy in exploration and reservoir characterization: An overview

Converted seismic waves (specifically, downgoing P‐waves that convert on reflection to upcoming S‐waves are increasingly being used to explore for subsurface targets. Rapid advancements in both land and marine multicomponent acquisition and processing techniques have led to numerous applications for P‐S surveys. Uses that have arisen include structural imaging (e.g., “seeing” through gas‐bearing sediments, improved fault definition, enhanced near‐surface resolution), lithologic estimation (e.g., sand versus shale content, porosity), anisotropy analysis (e.g., fracture density and orientation), subsurface fluid description, and reservoir monitoring. Further applications of P‐S data and analysis of other more complicated converted modes are developing.

/pdf/converted-wave-seismic-exploration-applications-3a2klst9ax.pdf

Converted‐wave seismic exploration: Applications

During the last five years, the use of shear‐wave splitting in geophysical exploration has made the transition from research project to very promising field technique. The measurement of the azimuth of the fast shear‐wave and analysis of the S-wave splitting (or birefringence) are now commonplace. Furthermore, a very timely practical application is suggested by the recent proposal that reflectivity on post‐rotation S1 and S2 data sets should indicate lateral variation of anisotropy. This could be of great value because the determination of lateral variation in fracture intensity in a vertically fractured sedimentary layer is necessary to insure high efficiency in a horizontal drilling program designed to drain the fractures.

Using shear waves to predict lateral variability in vertical fracture intensity

Seismic interpretation; 33, Using shear waves to predict lateral variability in vertical fracture intensity

Pore Pressure Prediction From S-wave, C-wave, And P-wave Velocities

P -to- S converted waves (or C -waves) have been successfully used to image beneath gas clouds in many areas. However, C -waves often suffer from severe diodic effects due to the gas clouds; that is, the C -wave amplitude and traveltime may be different in the forward and reverse shooting directions, giving rise to different C -wave stacking velocities ( diodic V C ) and velocity ratios ( diodic γeff). In some cases, whether a horizon (a geologic target) beneath a gas cloud can be undershot also depends on the shooting directions ( diodic illumination). These effects, compounded with the asymmetric raypath of the C -wave and the uncertainties in the P -wave data due to the gas clouds, will further increase the difficulties and costs of processing C -wave data. In this article, using the 2-D Valhall data as an example, we examine these effects and discuss ways to compensate for them during processing for improving the C -wave imaging.

The 2-D Valhall data were acquired in 1996. In the survey area, the overburden layers are highly charged with gas. These gas clouds are not thought to be present in economic quantities, but they attenuate the P -wave energy substantially and reduce the P -wave velocity, inducing dimming and push-down effects on the P -wave data (Figure 1a). Figure 1. 
(a) The final prestack-migrated P -wave imaging from the vertical geophone of the Valhall data. Note the dimming and push-down effects due to gas clouds. The vertical axis is two-way P -wave time. (b) The initial poststack-migrated image of the C -wave from the in-line horizontal geophone of the Valhall data. The processing involves asymptotic common-conversion-point (ACCP) binning, NMO, DMO, stack, and poststack migration. The vertical axis is two-way C -wave time. The picks shown are examples of P -wave to C -wave …

Compensating for the effects of gas clouds on C-wave imaging : A case study from Valhall

Crossed dipole acoustic logs represent a new class of measurement of subsurface formations which can provide detailed information on anisotropy not previously available. As with any new class of data, departures from previous conceptions may occur. In this case, the detail inherent in sonic-scale measurements provide information on anisotropy at sub-formation scale whereas seismic investigations of anisotropy are normally restricted to sequence-scale. When borehole conditions allow formation properties to be measured, the tool provides detailed information interpretable in terms of fracturing. Crossed dipole acoustic logs were acquired using the multisource/multireceiver technique, and Alford rotation (Alford, 1986; Thomsen, 1988 and Esmersoy, 1994) was employed to resolve observed flexural or shear-wave mode splitting. The data show indications of sensitivity to natural fracturing and, secondarily, to borehole ovality. The azimuth of the leading shear-wave polarization, qS1, compare favorably with independent data on fracture azimuth. Thomsen anisotropy parameter {gamma} as high as 10--20% is observed in certain anisotropic intervals. Such intensities, and their spatial occurrence on log data, are new information on anisotropy.

Case Studies of the Dipole Shear Anisotropy Log

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