The dawn of 3D printing in medicals has pinned the domain with hopes of vitality in many patients combating with multitude of diseases. Also entitled as Bio-printing, this is appertained to its sequential printing of precursor ink, embodying cells and polymer/composite, in predetermined trajectory. Precursor ink, in addition to cells, constitutes predominantly hydrogels ascribed to its biodegradability and mimic ability of body's anatomy and mechanical features, e.g. bones, etc. This review paper is devoted to explicate bio-printing (3D/4D) of alginate hydrogels, which are the extract from brown algae, through extrusion additive manufacturing. Alginates are salt derivative of alginic acid and constitute long chain of polysaccharides, which furnishes pliability and gelling adeptness to its structure. Alginate hydrogel (employed for extrusion) can be pristine or composite relying on the requisite properties (target application controlled or in-vivo environment) e.g. Alginate-natural (gelatin/agarose/collagen/hyaluronic acid/etc.) and Alginate-synthetic (polyethylene glycol (PEG)/pluronic F127/etc.). Extrusion additive manufacturing of Alginate is preponderate among others with its uncomplicated processing, material efficiency (cut down on wastage), and outspread adaptability for viscosities (0.03-6*104 Pa.s) but the procedure is limited by resolution(200 ?m) in addition to accuracy. However, 3D-fabricated bio-structures display rigidness (unvarying with conditions) that lacks smart response which is reassured by accounting time feature as noteworthy accessory to printing, interpreting as 4D Bio-printing. This review propounds specific processing itinerary for alginate (meanwhile traversing across its composites/blends with natural and synthetic consideration) in extrusion along with its pre-/during/post-processing parameters intrinsic to process. Furthermore, propensity is also presented in its (Alginate extrusion processing) application for tissue engineering, i.e. bones, cartilage (joints), brain (neural), ear, heart (cardiac), eyes (corneal), etc. due to worldwide quandary over accessibility to natural organs for diverse kinds of diseases. Additionally, the review contemplates recently invented advance printing i.e. 4D printing for biotic species with its challenges and future opportunities.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1758-5090/ab331e/pdf

Review of alginate-based hydrogel bioprinting for application in tissue engineering.

The dawn of commercial bioprinting is rapidly advancing the tissue engineering field. In the past few years, new bioprinting approaches as well as novel bioinks formulations have emerged, enabling biological research groups to demonstrate the use of such technology to fabricate functional and relevant tissue models. In recent years, several companies have launched bioprinters pushing for early adoption and democratisation of bioprinting. This article reviews the progress in commercial bioprinting since the inception, with a particular focus on the comparison of different available printing technologies and important features of the individual technologies as well as various existing applications. Various challenges and potential design considerations for next generations of bioprinters are also discussed.

http://ijb.whioce.com/index.php/int-j-bioprinting/article/viewFile/139/pdf

The arrival of commercial bioprinters - Towards 3D bioprinting revolution!

Essential steps in bioprinting: From pre- to post-bioprinting

Systematic analysis of the extrusion process in 3D bioprinting is mandatory for process optimization concerning production speed, shape fidelity of the 3D construct and cell viability. In this study, we applied numerical and analytical modeling to describe the fluid flow inside the printing head based on a Herschel-Bulkley model. The presented analytical calculation method nicely reproduces the results of Computational Fluid Dynamics simulation concerning pressure drop over the printing head and maximal shear parameters at the outlet. An approach with dimensionless flow parameter enables the user to adapt rheological characteristics of a bioink, the printing pressure and needle diameter with regard to processing time, shear sensitivity of the integrated cells, shape fidelity and strand dimension. Bioinks consist of a blend of polymers and cells, which lead to a complex fluid behavior. In the present study, a bioink containing alginate, methylcellulose and agarose (AMA) was used as experimental model to compare the calculated with the experimental pressure gradient. With cultures of an immortalized human mesenchymal stem cell line and plant cells (basil) it was tested how cells influence the flow and how mechanical forces inside the printing needle affect cell viability. Influences on both sides increased with cell (aggregation) size as well as a less spherical shape. This study contributes to a systematic description of the extrusion-based bioprinting process and introduces a general strategy for process design, transferable to other bioinks.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1758-5090/ab7553/pdf

Engineering considerations on extrusion-based bioprinting: interactions of material behavior, mechanical forces and cells in the printing needle.

The pursuit of appropriate, biocompatible materials is one of the primary challenges in translational bioprinting. The requirement to refine a biomaterial into a bioink places additional demands on the criteria for candidate biomaterials. The material must enable extrusion as a liquid bioink and yet be capable of maintaining its shape in the post-printing phase to yield viable tissues, organs and biological materials. Plant-derived biomaterials show great promise in harnessing both the natural strength of plant microarchitecture combined with their natural biological roles as supporters of cell growth. The aim of this review article is to outline the most widely used biomaterials derived from land plants and marine algae: nanocellulose, pectin, starch, alginate, agarose, fucoidan and carrageenan, with an in-depth focus on nanocellulose and alginate. The properties that render these materials as promising bioinks for three dimensional bioprinting is herein discussed alongside their potential in 3D bioprinting for tissue engineering, drug delivery, wound healing and implantable medical devices.

/pdf/plant-derived-biomaterials-a-review-of-3d-bioprinting-and-bvfad8tcyv.pdf

Plant-Derived Biomaterials: A Review of 3D Bioprinting and Biomedical Applications

Plant cell cultures produce active agents for pharmaceuticals, food and cosmetics. However, up to now process control for plant cell suspension cultures is challenging. A positive impact of cell immobilization, such as encapsulation in hydrogel beads, on secondary metabolites production has been reported for several plant species. The aim of this work was to develop a method for bioprinting of plant cells in order to allow fabrication of free-formed three-dimensional matrices with defined internal pore architecture for in depth characterization of immobilization conditions, cell agglomeration and interactions. By using extrusion-based 3D plotting of a basil cell-laden hydrogel blend consisting of alginate, agarose and methylcellulose (alg/aga/mc), we could demonstrate that bioprinting is applicable to plant cells. The majority of the cells survived plotting and crosslinking and the embedded cells showed high viability and metabolic activity during the investigated cultivation period of 20 d. Beside its compatibility with the plant cells, the novel alg/aga/mc blend allowed fabrication of defined 3D constructs with open macropores both in vertical and horizontal direction which were stable under culture conditions for several weeks. Thus, Green Bioprinting, an additive manufacturing technology processing live cells from the plant kingdom, is a promising new immobilization tool for plant cells that enables the development of new bioprocesses for secondary metabolites production as well as monitoring methods.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1758-5090/aa8854/pdf

Green bioprinting: extrusion-based fabrication of plant cell-laden biopolymer hydrogel scaffolds.

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Green bioprinting: extrusion-based fabrication of plant cell-laden biopolymer hydrogel scaffolds.