Interfacial solar evaporation, which captures solar energy and localizes the generated heat for evaporating water molecules, is regarded as an important emerging strategy for solar energy conversion. In the past decade, global collective efforts have propelled fast and exciting advancements, with solar-to-vapour efficiencies approaching the thermodynamic limit. This has also spurred significant interest in many applications. However, improving the energy efficiency alone cannot move the field towards the practical development of these applications. A matrix of different factors and fundamental challenges should therefore be taken into consideration in addition to the solar-to-vapour efficiency or evaporation flux. In this Perspective we first discuss several promising applications of solar evaporation, and the corresponding figures of merit, for clean water production, wastewater and brine management, resource recovery, sterilization and power generation. We then discuss the fundamental aspects of solar evaporation that need to be determined, such as microscopic thermal transfer and water molecule bonding, which are closely related to evaporative performance. Finally, energy sources beyond solar energy will be discussed to further boost the evaporative performance. Efficiency is only one of the parameters involved in solar evaporation that should be improved to make it practical. Depending on the application, various factors of merit should be taken into consideration, as discussed in this Perspective. 

Going beyond efficiency for solar evaporation

Interfacial solar evaporation (ISE) is a promising technology to relieve worldwide freshwater shortages owing to its high energy conversion efficiency and environmentally sustainable potential. So far, many innovative materials and evaporators have been proposed and applied in ISE to enable highly controllable and efficient solar-to-thermal energy conversion. With rational design, solar evaporators can achieve excellent energy management for lowering energy loss, harvesting extra energy, and efficiently utilizing energy in the system to improve freshwater production. Beyond that, a strategy of reducing water vaporization enthalpy by introducing molecular engineering for water-state regulation has also been demonstrated as an effective approach to boost ISE. Based on these, this article discusses the energy nexus in two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) evaporators separately and reviews the strategies for design and fabrication of highly efficient ISE systems. The summarized work offers significant perspectives for guiding the future design of ISE systems with efficient energy management, which pave pathways for practical applications. 

https://www.sciopen.com/article_pdf/1633307631227129857.pdf

Recent strategies for constructing efficient interfacial solar evaporation systems

Rationally constructing a 3D bifunctional solar evaporator for high-performance water evaporation coupled with pollutants degradation

Electrospinning Technique Meets Solar Energy: Electrospun Nanofiber-Based Evaporation Systems for Solar Steam Generation

Solar-driven interfacial water evaporation has received considerable attention as a potential solution for wastewater treatment applications. Despite previous studies confirming significant performance improvements through rational solar evaporator design, challenges remain in achieving comprehensive condensed water purification and addressing high pollutant concentrations in source water. In this review, we evaluate the optimization strategies for solar absorption, thermal management, and water-existing forms to achieve high-efficiency water evaporation. In addition, we provide a brief overview of photothermal materials that are based on a variety of different photothermal conversion mechanisms. Based on previous research, our focus is on exploring purification strategies using interfacial water evaporation technology to address common water pollutants, including volatile organic compounds, dyes, metal ions, and more. Lastly, we discuss the challenges of practical implementation of interfacial water evaporation technology in the field of wastewater treatment, followed by our views and future perspectives. 

Solar-driven interfacial water evaporation for wastewater purification: Recent advances and challenges

In this work, we demonstrate a 3-dimensional graphene oxide (3D GO) stalk that operates near the capillary wicking limit to achieve an evaporation flux of 34.7 kg m-2 h-1 under 1 sun conditions (1 kW/m2). This flux represents nearly a 100 times enhancement over a conventional solar evaporation pond. Interfacial solar evaporation traditionally uses 2D evaporators to vaporize water using sunlight, but their low evaporative water flux limits their practical applicability for desalination. Some recent studies using 3D evaporators demonstrate potential for more efficient water transfer, but the flux improvement has been marginal because of a low evaporation area index (EAI), which is defined as the ratio of the total evaporative surface area to the projected ground area. By using a 3D GO stalk with an ultrahigh EAI of 70, we achieved nearly a 20-fold enhancement over a 2D GO evaporator. The 3D GO stalk also exhibited additional advantages including omnidirectional sunlight utilization, a high evaporation flux under dark conditions from more efficient utilization of ambient heating, a dramatic increase of the evaporation rate by introducing wind, and scaling resistance in evaporating brines with a salt content of up to 17.5 wt %. This performance makes the 3D GO stalk well suited for the development of a low-cost, reduced footprint technology for zero liquid discharge in brine management applications.

Interfacial Solar Evaporation by a 3D Graphene Oxide Stalk for Highly Concentrated Brine Treatment.

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Interfacial Solar Evaporation by a 3D Graphene Oxide Stalk for Highly Concentrated Brine Treatment.