ion. One example must suffice here. Today it is held in certain circles that the basic task of political or social science is to understand the most concrete human relationship, and that relationship is called the "I-Thou-We" relation. It is obvious that the "Thou" and the "We" are supplements to Descartes' "Ego"; the question is whether the fundamental inadequacy of Descartes' Ego can be disposed of by any supplements, and whether it is not necessary to return to a more fundamental beginning, or to the natural beginning. The phenomenon which is now called the I-Thou-We relation was known to the classics by the name of friendship. When speaking to a friend, I address him in the second person. But philosophic or scientific analysis is not speaking to a friend, i.e., to this individual here and now, but speaking to anyone concerned with such analysis. Such analysis cannot be meant to be a substitute for living together as friends; it can at best only point to such living-together or arouse a desire for it. When speaking about someone with whom I have a close relationship I call him my "friend". I do not call him "Thou." Adequately "speaking about" in analytical or objective speech must be grounded in and continue the manner of "speaking about" which is inherent in human life. By 358 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 19 speaking of "the Thou" instead of "the friend," I am trying to preserve in objective speech what cannot be preserved in objective speech; I am trying to objectify something which is incapable of being objectified. I am trying to preserve in "speaking about" what can be actual only in "speaking to," i.e., I do injustice to the phenomena; I am untrue to the phenomena; I miss the concrete. While attempting to lay a foundation for genuine human communication, I perserve an incapacity for it. The character of classical political philosophy appears with the greatest clarity from Plato's Laws, which is his political work par excellence. The Lawvs is a conversation, about law and political things in general, between an old Athenian stranger, an old Cretan, and an old Spartan. The conversation takes place on the island of Crete. At the beginning one receives the impression that the Athenian has come to Crete in order to study there the best laws. For if it is true that the good is identical with the ancestral, the best laws for a Greek would be the oldest Greek laws, and these are the Cretan laws. But the equation of the good with the ancestral is not tenable if the first ancestors were not gods, or sons of gods, or pupils of gods. Hence, the Cretans believed that their laws were originated by Zeus, who instructed his son Minos, the Cretan legislator. The Laws opens with an expression of this belief. It appears immediately afterward that this belief has no other ground, no better ground, than a saying of Homer-and the poets are of questionable veracity-as well as what the Cretans say, and the Cretans were famous for their lack of veracity. However this may be, very shortly after its beginning, the conversation shifts from the question of the origins of the Cretan laws and the Spartan laws to the question of their intrinsic worth. A code given by a god, Moy, a being of the superhuman excellence, must be unqualifiedly good. Very slowly, very circumspectly does the Athenian approach this grave question. To begin with, he limits his criticism of the principle underlying the Cretan and the Spartan codes by criticizing not these codes, but a poet, a man without authority and, in addition, an expatriate, who had praised the same principle. In the sequel, the philosopher attacks not yet the Cretan and the Spartan codes, but the interpretation of these codes which had been set forth by his two interlocutors. He does not begin to criticize these venerable codes explicitly until he has appealed to a presumed Cretan and 1957] WHAT IS POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY 359 Spartan law which permits such criticism under certain conditions -under conditions which are fulfilled, to some extent, in the present conversation. Acccording to that law, all must say with one voice and with one mouth that all the laws of Crete, or of Sparta, are good because they are god-given, and no one is suffered to say something different; but an old citizen may utter a criticism of an allegedly divine law before a magistrate of his own age if no young men are present. By this time it has become clear to the reader that the Athenian has not come to Crete in order to study there the best laws, but rather to introduce into Crete new laws and institutions, truly good laws and institutions. These laws and institutions will prove to be, to a considerable extent, of Athenian origin. It seems that the Athenian, being the son of a highly civilized society, has embarked on the venture of civilizing a rather uncivilized society. Therefore he has to apprehend that his suggestions will be odious, not only as innovations, but above all as foreign, as Athenian; deep-seated, old animosities and suspicions will be aroused by his recommendations. He begins his explicit criticism with a remark about the probable connection between certain Cretan and Spartan institutions and the practice of homosexuality in these cities. The Spartan, rising in defense of his fatherland, does not, indeed, defend homosexuality, but, turning to the offensive, rebukes the Athenians for their excessive drinking. The Athenian is thus given a perfect excuse for recommending the introduction of the Athenian institution of banquets: he is compelled to defend that institution, and by defending it he acts the part, not of a civilizing philosopher who, being a philosopher, is a philanthropist, but of the patriot. He acts in a way which is perfectly understandable to his interlocutors and perfectly respectable in their opinion. He attempts to show that wine-drinking and even drunkenness, if it is practiced in banquets well presided over, is conducive to education in temperance or moderation. This speech about wine forms the bulk of the first two books of the Laws. Only after the speech about wine has been brought to its conclusion does the Athenian turn to the question of the beginning of political life, to a question which is the true beginning of his political theme. The speech about wine appears to be tke introduction to political philosophy. Why does the Platonic dialogue about politics and laws begin with such an extensive conversation about wine? What is the ar360 THE JOURNAL OS POLITICS [Vol. 19 tistic or logographic necessity demanding this? The proper interlocutors in a conversation about laws are old citizens of communities famous for their laws, for their obedience and allegiance to their old laws. Such men understand best what living under laws, living in laws, means. They are the perfect incarnation of the spirit of laws: of lawfulness, of law-abidingness. However, their very virtue becomes a defect if there is no longer a question of preserving old laws, but of seeking the best laws or introducing new and better ones. Their habits and their competence make these men im-pervious to suggestions for improvement. The Athenian induces them to participate in a conversation about wine-drinking, about a pleasure that is forbidden to them by their old laws. The talk about wine-drinking is a kind of vicarious enjoyment of wine, especially since wine-drinking is a forbidden pleasure. Perhaps the talk reminds the two old interlocutors of secret and pleasurable transgressions of their own. The effect of the talk about wine is therefore similar to the effect of actual wine-drinking; it loosens their tongues; it makes them young; it makes them bold, daring, willing to innovate. They must not actually drink wine, since this would impair their judgment. They must drink wine, not in deed, but in

What Is Political Philosophy

(1991). The intercultural and socio-historical context of aboriginal personal violence in remote austral. Australian Psychologist: Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 89-98.

The intercultural and socio-historical context of aboriginal personal violence in remote austral

The possible misuse of psychiatric diagnosis for political and social purposes not originally intended as coming within the domain of diagnostic categories is reviewed. One such example, the category of querulous paranoia, is described in terms of both diagnostic criteria and actual applications. Possible applications and potential for abuse of this classification are noted also, particularly with regard to the classification including reactions to actual, as well as imagined, persecution. The relationship between the use of the concept of querulous paranoia and psychiatric abuse, as well as points of difference are discussed.

Querulous Paranoia: Diagnosis and Dissent

The aim of this paper is to show the futility of debates about the morality of enforced treatment in psychiatry because all participants accept a framework I shall call ’individualistic ethics’. This framework has the all-too-convenient property of endorsing contradictory answers. Hence fruitful debate will only come when the framework is challenged. In the last quarter of a century a number of writers have registered forceful complaints against psychiatric practices, and particularly against enforced treatment. A number of variants of this complaint exist but most of them attack psychiatry on the basis of an individualistic ethic. Not without justice, Thomas S. Szasz is viewed as the leader of this trend of thought that understands mental illness as, among other things, a deliberately chosen way of life. An individualistic ethic views the individual as autonomous, as the sole agent responsible for his actions even when mentally ill. Furthermore, such an ethic must regard forcible treatment of the mentally ill as utterly unacceptable, since it deprives the patient of autonomy. Alfred Adler seems to have been the first to view mental illness as, among other things, a way of life, and to integrate this view into a general theory of mental health and disease. According to Adler, one’s life-style, that is, one’s way of perceiving and of acting in the world, namely, one’s way of communication-with one’s self and with one’s fellow humans-reflects the very meaning one gives to one’s life.2 2

The Autonomy of the Mentally Ill: A Case-Study in Individualistic Ethics

A case of exorcism as apparently successful treatment for transsexualism has previously been reported. The actual procedure in a similar case of exorcism by a psychiatrist is reported, together with details of the outcome and a discussion of theoretical, applied, and ethical aspects of the case.

Exorcism as psychiatric treatment: A homosexual case study

It is shown that the label “mental disease” derives from value judgements made by the labeller, and that science alone cannot determine the ultimate validity of these judgements. Hence, the term must be, in a genuine sense, based on social and moral convention. However, it is argued that this does not necessarily mean that the medical model, as contended by Szasz and his school, has no value. Rather, it is claimed here that only by returning to the medical model can we make best use of our psychiatric knowledge and best serve our patients.

Philosophical aspects of "mental disease".

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Philosophical aspects of "mental disease".