Objective: Our aim was to review empirical studies of complacency and bias in human interaction with automated and decision support systems and provide an integrated theoretical model for their explanation. Background: Automation-related complacency and automation bias have typically been considered separately and independently. Methods: Studies on complacency and automation bias were analyzed with respect to the cognitive processes involved. Results: Automation complacency occurs under conditions of multiple-task load, when manual tasks compete with the automated task for the operator’s attention. Automation complacency is found in both naive and expert participants and cannot be overcome with simple practice. Automation bias results in making both omission and commission errors when decision aids are imperfect.Automation bias occurs in both naive and expert participants, cannot be prevented by training or instructions, and can affect decision making in individuals as well as in teams.While automation bias has been conceived of as a special case of decision bias, our analysis suggests that it also depends on attentional processes similar to those involved in automation-related complacency. Conclusion: Complacency and automation bias represent different manifestations of overlapping automation-induced phenomena, with attention playing a central role. An integrated model of complacency and automation bias shows that they result from the dynamic interaction of personal, situational, and automation-related characteristics. Application: The integrated model and attentional synthesis provides a heuristic framework for further research on complacency and automation bias and design options for mitigating such effects in automated and decision support systems.

/pdf/complacency-and-bias-in-human-use-of-automation-an-46rbc31k66.pdf

Complacency and bias in human use of automation: an attentional integration.

In the last decades, 3D city models appear to have been predominantly used for visualisation; however, today they are being increasingly employed in a number of domains and for a large range of tasks beyond visualisation. In this paper, we seek to understand and document the state of the art regarding the utilisation of 3D city models across multiple domains based on a comprehensive literature study including hundreds of research papers, technical reports and online resources. A challenge in a study such as ours is that the ways in which 3D city models are used cannot be readily listed due to fuzziness, terminological ambiguity, unclear added-value of 3D geoinformation in some instances, and absence of technical information. To address this challenge, we delineate a hierarchical terminology (spatial operations, use cases, applications), and develop a theoretical reasoning to segment and categorise the diverse uses of 3D city models. Following this framework, we provide a list of identified use cases of 3D city models (with a description of each), and their applications. Our study demonstrates that 3D city models are employed in at least 29 use cases that are a part of more than 100 applications. The classified inventory could be useful for scientists as well as stakeholders in the geospatial industry, such as companies and national mapping agencies, as it may serve as a reference document to better position their operations, design product portfolios, and to better understand the market.

/pdf/applications-of-3d-city-models-state-of-the-art-review-3yewcl5e4i.pdf

Applications of 3D City Models: State of the Art Review

OBJECTIVE: The authors discuss empirical studies of human-automation interaction and their implications for automation design. BACKGROUND: Automation is prevalent in safety-critical systems and increasingly in everyday life. Many studies of human performance in automated systems have been conducted over the past 30 years. METHODS: Developments in three areas are examined: levels and stages of automation, reliance on and compliance with automation, and adaptive automation. RESULTS: Automation applied to information analysis or decision-making functions leads to differential system performance benefits and costs that must be considered in choosing appropriate levels and stages of automation. Human user dependence on automated alerts and advisories reflects two components of operator trust, reliance and compliance, which are in turn determined by the threshold designers use to balance automation misses and false alarms. Finally, adaptive automation can provide additional benefits in balancing workload and maintaining the user's situation awareness, although more research is required to identify when adaptation should be user controlled or system driven. CONCLUSIONS: The past three decades of empirical research on humans and automation has provided a strong science base that can be used to guide the design of automated systems. APPLICATION: This research can be applied to most current and future automated systems. Language: en

Humans : Still Vital After All These Years of Automation

This review of the literature examines, in a quantitative fashion, how the level of imperfection or unreliability of diagnostic automation affects the performance of the human operator who is jointly consulting that automation and the raw data itself. The data from 20 different studies were used to generate 35 different data points that compared performance with varying levels of unreliability, with that of a non-automated baseline condition. A regression analysis of benefits/costs relative to baseline was carried out, and revealed a strong linear function of benefits with reliability. The analysis revealed that a reliability of 0.70 was the ‘crossover point’ below which unreliable automation was worse than no automation at all. The analysis also revealed that performance was more strongly affected by reliability in high workload conditions, implicating the role of workload-imposed automation dependence in producing this relationship, and suggesting that humans tend to protect performance of concurrent ta...

The benefits of imperfect diagnostic automation: a synthesis of the literature

SOFA is an Open Source framework primarily targeted at real-time simulation, with an emphasis on medical simulation. It is mostly intended for the research community to help develop newer algorithms, but can also be used as an efficient prototyping tool. Based on an advanced software architecture, it allows to: * create complex and evolving simulations by combining new algorithms with algorithms already included in SOFA * modify most parameters of the simulation - deformable behavior, surface representation, solver, constraints, collision algorithm, etc. - by simply editing an XML file * build complex models from simpler ones using a scene-graph description * efficiently simulate the dynamics of interacting objects using abstract equation solvers * reuse and easily compare a variety of available methods

https://hal.inria.fr/inria-00319416/document

SOFA--an open source framework for medical simulation.

A theory of why users and display designers prefer highly realistic, supposedly intuitive displays despite their poor performance.

Naive Realism: Misplaced Faith in Realistic Displays:

Tactical displays can quickly become cluttered with large numbers of symbols that can compromise effective monitoring. Here, we studied how heuristic automation can aid users by intelligently "decluttering" the display. In a realistic simulated naval air defense task, 27 experienced U.S. Navy users monitored a cluttered airspace and executed defensive responses against significant threats. An algorithm continuously evaluated aircraft for their levels of threat and decluttered the less threatening ones by dimming their symbols. Users appropriately distrusted and spot-checked the automation's assessments, and decluttering had very little effect on which aircraft were judged as significantly threatening. Nonetheless, decluttering improved the timeliness of responses to threatening aircraft by 25% as compared with a baseline display with no decluttering; it was especially beneficial for threats in more peripheral locations, and 25 of 27 participants preferred decluttering. Heuristic automation, when properly designed to guide users' attention by decluttering less important objects, may prove valuable in many cluttered monitoring situations, including air traffic management, crisis team management, and tactical situation awareness in general.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1518/001872005774860014

Heuristic automation for decluttering tactical displays.

Detecting changes in complex monitoring tasks is important for situation awareness, yet surprisingly difficult. Interruptions exacerbate this problem. An intuitively appealing solution to this problem is Instant Replay. Users could replay interrupted periods at high speed to quickly perceive changes. Instant Replay's appeal seems to rest on its familiarity and realistic re-presentation of the temporal sequence of the interrupted situation. However, current theories of perception, including Naive Realism (Smallman & St. John, 2005), predict this emphasis on realism to be misguided. We compared two versions of replay against three alternative tools in a naval air warfare simulation in which 35 participants monitored a busy airspace for significant changes. One alternative, CHEX, a situation awareness recovery concept we are developing, automatically detects and logs changes into an interactive table. CHEX provided an effective representation for quickly recovering situation awareness. In contrast, realistic...

https://interruptions.net/literature/St_John-HFES05b.pdf

Recovery from interruptions to a dynamic monitoring task: the beguiling utility of instant replay

Dynamic operational tasks, such as airspace monitoring and civil emergency operations, require maintaining awareness of changing situations, in part by detecting and interpreting significant changes. Poor change detection ability makes this maintenance difficult enough while monitoring a situation display uninterrupted, but multitasking and interruptions increase the difficulty because the situation can change during the interruptions. Yet little research has addressed the need for better interface tools to help users detect and interpret changes, either to maintain situation awareness or to recover it following interruptions. The objective of this article is to present a principled, theoretical basis for designing interface tools that help users recover and maintain situation awareness in dynamic operational tasks. First, we present a framework for understanding the processes of interruption recovery during dynamic tasks within the broader context of interruption recovery generally. Then we briefly review a series of experiments, primarily from our own laboratory, from which we derive four design principles. Last, we contrast a number of interface designs in terms of the principles. Consideration of the four principles should facilitate the design of more effective tools to help users get back up to speed for these important and high-risk tasks.

Staying Up to Speed: Four Design Principles for Maintaining and Recovering Situation Awareness

Current display technologies do not support users in the critical task of recovering their situation awareness by determining whether situations have changed in meaningful ways. By simply representing the current state of a situation, displays force users to rely on their own ability to extract changes by cognitively integrating events over time. A flood of recent experiments have demonstrated dramatic limitations in these cognitive processes, with humans unable to spot changes in simple scenes, even under optimal monitoring conditions (they show “change blindness”). Here, we develop and empirically evaluate a set of new HCI concepts, collectively called CHEX (Change History Explicit), for supporting improved change awareness in a naval air warfare domain in which users monitor an airspace. CHEX augments the human attentional system with a set of intelligent change detectors whose output is logged in a re-configurable table format that is linked back to the situation display. We show that CHEX is extremel...

Chex (Change History Explicit): New HCI Concepts for Change Awareness

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