Primary or secondary forests around the world are increasingly being converted into plantations. Soil microorganisms are critical for all biogeochemical processes in ecosystems, but the effects of forest conversion on microbial communities and their functioning remain unclear. Here, we conducted a meta-analysis to quantify the impacts that converting forests to plantations has on soil microbial communities and functioning as well as on the associated plant and soil properties. We collected 524 paired observations from 138 studies globally. We found that conversion leads to broad range of adverse impacts on soils and microorganisms, including on soil organic carbon (-24%), total nitrogen (-29%), bacterial and fungal biomass (-36% and -42%, respectively), microbial biomass carbon (MBC, -31%) and nitrogen (-33%), and fungi to bacteria ratio (F:B, -16%). In addition, we found impacts on the ratio of MBC to soil organic C (qMBC, -20%), microbial respiration (-18%), N mineralization (-18%), and enzyme activities including β-1,4-glucosidase (-54%), β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminidase (-39%), and acid phosphatase (ACP; -34%). In contrast, conversion to plantations increases bacterial richness (+21%) and microbial metabolic quotient (qCO2 , +21%). The effects of forest conversion were consistent across stand ages, stand types, and climate zone. Soil C and N contents as well as the C:N ratio were the main factors responsible for the changes of microbial C, F:B, and bacterial richness. The responses of qCO2 , N mineralization, and ACP activity were mainly driven by the reductions in F:B, MBC, and soil C:N. Applying macro-ecology theory on ecosystem disturbance in soil microbial ecology, we show that microbial groups shifted from K to r strategists after conversion to plantations. Our meta-analysis underlines the adverse effects of natural forests conversion to plantations on soil microbial communities and functioning, and suggests that the preservation of soil functions should be a consideration in forest management practices.

Forest conversion to plantations: A meta-analysis of consequences for soil and microbial properties and functions.

Thinning profoundly affects soil microbial communities and carbon (C) cycling through altering soil microclimate, plant growth, C inputs and allocations. However, these effects are uncertain and may change with thinning intensity, recovery stage, forest type, and climate. Here, we conducted a global meta-analysis, based on 337 observations from 49 studies, to quantify the responses of soil properties, microbial biomass and community structure, and extracellular enzyme activities (EEAs) to thinning. We found that thinning did not change the total microbial biomass, but significantly shifted the soil microbial community structure and EEAs. Thinning stimulated both C-oxidase and C-hydrolase, but decreased the ratio of oligotrophic to copiotrophic microbes (i.e. fungi to bacteria ratio and Gram-positive bacteria to Gram-negative bacteria ratio) in the early recovery stage. In contrast, in the mid recovery stage, thinning enhanced C-oxidase but reduced C-hydrolase, and increased the ratio of oligotrophic to copiotrophic microbes. In the late recovery stage, neither community structure nor EEAs differed significantly between thinned and control stands. Such recovery dynamics reflect shifts of the resource-utilization strategies of microbes that are associated with community reorganization. Besides, the distinct litter quality between coniferous and broadleaf forests explained their different microbial responses. Overall, the current meta-analysis suggested that microbes can adapt the thinning-induced biotic and abiotic changes by adjustment of community structure rather than their biomass. The global patterns of how soil microbial community structure and EEAs respond to thinning deepen the understanding of the mechanisms underlying the thinning impacts on the soil C cycling.

Impacts of forest thinning on soil microbial community structure and extracellular enzyme activities: A global meta-analysis

The negative effect of Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) monoculture plantations on soil physicochemical properties, microbial biomass, fungal communities, and enzymatic activities

Non-native Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in Central Europe: Ecology, performance and nature conservation

The relationships between heavy metals and bacterial communities in a coal gangue site.

Tree species affect soil organic matter stocks and stoichiometry in interaction with soil microbiota

The knowledge of tree species dependent turnover of soil organic matter (SOM) is limited, yet required to understand the carbon sequestration function of forest soil. We combined investigations of 13C and 15N and its relationship to elemental stoichiometry along soil depth gradients in 35-year old monocultural stands of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), black pine (Pinus nigra), European beech (Fagus sylvatica) and red oak (Quercus rubra) growing on a uniform post-mining soil. We investigated the natural abundance of 13C and 15N and the carbon:nitrogen (C:N) and oxygen:carbon (O:C) stoichiometry of litterfall and fine roots as well as SOM in the forest floor and mineral soil. Tree species had a significant effect on SOM δ13C and δ15N reflecting significantly different signatures of litterfall and root inputs. Throughout the soil profile, δ13C and δ15N were significantly related to the C:N and O:C ratio which indicates that isotope enrichment with soil depth is linked to the turnover of organic matter (OM). Significantly higher turnover of OM in soils under deciduous tree species depended to 46% on the quality of litterfall and root inputs (N content, C:N, O:C ratio), and the initial isotopic signatures of litterfall. Hence, SOM composition and turnover also depends on additional—presumably microbial driven—factors. The enrichment of 15N with soil depth was generally linked to 13C. In soils under pine, however, with limited N and C availability, the enrichment of 15N was decoupled from 13C. This suggests that transformation pathways depend on litter quality of tree species.

/pdf/the-linkage-of-13c-and-15n-soil-depth-gradients-with-c-n-and-3nrbtaueae.pdf

The linkage of 13C and 15N soil depth gradients with C:N and O:C stoichiometry reveals tree species effects on organic matter turnover in soil

The molecular composition of extractable soil microbial compounds and their contribution to soil organic matter vary with soil depth and tree species

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Tree species affect soil organic matter stocks and stoichiometry in interaction with soil microbiota

The linkage of 13C and 15N soil depth gradients with C:N and O:C stoichiometry reveals tree species effects on organic matter turnover in soil

The molecular composition of extractable soil microbial compounds and their contribution to soil organic matter vary with soil depth and tree species