https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_powers002.pdf

The North American long-term soil productivity experiment: Findings from the first decade of research

Effects of slash reinforcement of strip roads on rutting and soil compaction on a moist fine-grained soil

Our research explored the impact of forest machinery on soil when traffi cking off -road through forest stands. In particular, we assessed soil compaction caused by harvesting operations. Th is study had two objectives: (i) Quantify the increase of soil bulk density (absolute and relative density) by forest machinery; and (ii) Analyze the persistence of soil compaction over a 5-yr period. Our research was innovative in three respects; 1. We assessed in-place soil density at exactly the same locations pre- and posttreatment with a nuclear moisture and density gauge. In this context, we consider treatment as forest machinery (harvester and forwarder) traffi cking on forest soil. 2. Aft er the treatment, we monitored soil density at identical locations through yearly assessments for 5 yr to identify possible natural rehabilitation patterns. 3. We related the measured fi eld bulk densities to site specifi c maximum bulk densities derived by standard Proctor tests (concept of relative bulk density) to get a better understanding of the severity of off -road traffi c impact on soil density changes. Our key fi ndings on two research sites were: 1. On average, dry soil bulk density increased by 19% in machine tracks. 2. Machine impact was not just limited to vehicle tracks; we noticed an increase of soil bulk density >10% in 14 of 65 (21.5%) locations extending up to 1 m away from tracks. 3. Due to machine impact, fi eld bulk density increases exceeded the 80% maximum bulk density threshold at 32% of all track locations, mostly in soil depths of 20 to 30 cm. 4. Monitoring soil density for 5 yr aft er the treatment indicated no natural rehabilitation (decrease) of soil density down to pretreatment levels. Abbreviations: ASL, above sea level; CTL, cut-to-length; DBH, diameter at breast height; FBD, fi eld bulk density; MBD, maximum bulk density; ML, sandy silt; NGP, nominal ground pressure; NMDG, nuclear moisture-density gauge; OWC, optimum water content; RBD, relative bulk density; SL, silty sand with gravel; USCS, Unifi ed Soil Classifi cation System.

Soil Compaction Caused by Cut-to-Length Forest Operations and Possible Short-Term Natural Rehabilitation of Soil Density

Ground-based skidding can have detrimental effects on soil properties trough soil profile disturbance and compaction that can persist for decades. We investigated the recovery of physical properties of disturbed brown soils on four abandoned downhill skid trails in a deciduous mountain forest in northern Iran. The most recent skidding operations had taken place 1–5 yrs, 6–10 yrs, 11–15 yrs, and 16–20 yrs ago, providing a 20-year chronosequence with four 5-year recovery periods. For each recovery period, mean values for soil bulk density (BD), total porosity (TP), macroporosity (MP), soil moisture content (SM), and rut depth (RD) were assessed for three levels of traffic intensity (Primary (PS), Secondary (SS) and Tertiary (TS) skid trails) and two levels of slope gradients (Gentle (G) and Steep (S)) and compared to those in undisturbed (control) areas. Over the 20-year recovery period, PS trails on gentle slopes exhibited mean values that were 35–42% (BD), 3–7% (SM), and 13–19 cm (RD) greater and 18–24% (TP) and 19–28% (MP) lower compared to undisturbed areas; on steep PS trails, values were 40–46% (BD), 2–13% (SM), and 13–21 cm (RD) greater and 23–27% (TP) and 28–35% (MP) lower, respectively. While RD and SM recovered, 20 years was not long enough for the other physical soil properties, particularly on steep slopes. To minimize soil disturbance, skidding should be confined to areas with gentle slopes and alternative harvesting methods such as cable yarding should be used where slope gradients exceed 20%.

Recovery of Soil Bulk Density, Porosity and Rutting From Ground Skidding Over a 20-Year Period after Timber Harvesting in Iran

The Caspian forests of Iran were monitored and evaluated for forest natural regeneration after logging activities for more than a decade. This large area has a substantial ecological, environmental and socio-economic importance. Ground based skidding is the most common logging method in these forests and soil compaction is the most critical consequence of this method. One of the current main topics and important emerging issue in forest research of the last decade are discussed in this study. Soil compaction has major influences on growth and/or mortality rates of forest seedlings. This study has lasted for over ten years so as to have a clear overview related to forest natural regeneration after logging activities. We monitored and evaluated physical soil properties (bulk density, penetration resistance and total porosity) and their effects on maple and beech seedlings on 10-year-old skid trails in the Iranian Caspian forests. Results obtained from evaluating the impact of skid trails within the aforementioned three soil physical parameters were significant; bulk density increased by 12.6% on log skidded routes (between two skidder tires on skid trail) and 36.1% on tire tracks, compared to non-skid trails (1.19 g/cm3), penetration resistance increased by 68% on log skidded routes and 220% on tire tracks, compared to non-skid trails (0.25 MPa), total porosity decreased by 12.8% on log skidded routes and 30.9% on tire tracks, compared to non-skid trails (54%). Among the morphological parameters, lateral root length (LRL) and root penetration depth (RPD) showed the highest decrease at soil compaction compared to the control (decrease in LRL: 60% in maple and 44% in beech; decrease in RPD: 56% in both maple and beech); the main response of growth parameters to soil compaction was found in roots (decrease in dry mass of 36% both in maple and beech); architectural parameters were also influenced by soil compaction, and the response of both seedling species was more evident in the ratio of main root to stem length (RRS) (reduction in RRS 42% in maple, 33% in beech); the ratio of RPD to main root length (RPL) also showed a great reduction (reduction in RPL 20% in maple 33% in beech). Physical soil properties, changes in other environmental properties of skid trails, created differences in beech and maple seedling growth between the skid trails and non-skid trails. This was closely related to the physiological characteristics of the two species studied. Beech seedlings reacted well to a moderate uncovering but they needed little disturbed soil, even if there was a very mixed bedding. Maple seedlings reacted better than beech seedlings to the uncovering and soil disturbance. The effects of the skid trail on morphology, growth and architecture of maple seedlings in the Hyrcanian beech forests showed that the maple, as a seedling, is a suitable species for maintaining the physical properties of skid trails after logging operations in the beech stands in the Caspian forests of Iran.

https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/10/9/771/pdf

Morphology, Growth and Architecture Response of Beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) and Maple Tree (Acer velutinum Boiss.) Seedlings to Soil Compaction Stress Caused by Mechanized Logging Operations

The effect of soil disturbance (litter removal, topsoil removal and compaction) from forest harvesting on the productivity, log product yields and economic potential of secondrotation Pinus radiata growing on a clay loam soil, was assessed in a long-term trial 21 years after planting. The results are projected forward to the expected harvest age of 28 years. Relative to control plots, average tree volume at 21 years was reduced by 8% in the plots where the litter had been removed and the topsoil had been compacted, and by up to 42% in the plots where the topsoil had been removed and the subsoil compacted. The “degree of compaction” did not have a significant effect on average tree volume in the plots where litter had been removed but did have a significant effect where the topsoil had been removed. Per tree economic potential was reduced to a greater extent (up to 60% loss in value) than average tree volume was reduced. This was largely due to changes in log product yield distribution. Projecting tree growth forward to the end of the rotation at age 28 indicated that the impacts of soil disturbance on tree growth, economic potential and log product yields are likely to be similar in relative terms to those found at age 21.

Long-term impacts of forest harvesting related soil disturbance on log product yields and economic potential in a New Zealand forest

Handle everyday research tasks with reliable, citation-backed results

Your personal Research Agent to handle research tasks with citation-backed results

Popular Tasks used by Researchers

How can I help with your research?

Meet SciSpace

Get more enhanced response by uploading the PDFs you want me to reference.

No relevant PDFs in your library

SciSpace is the AI research assistant for academics. Run systematic literature reviews on 280M+ papers, and write papers with cited sources. Trusted by 1M+ students, PhDs & researchers.

SciSpace | AI for Research

Analyze PDFs

Code & Manuscripts

Funding & Grants

Literature & Patents

Medical & Clinical Data

Systematic Review

Visualize & Present

Web & Data

Build a Google Scholar-like website for your research.

Build a website

Create charts and images for your research

Create a Chart

Write a paper for submission to a journal

Draft a manuscript

Patent Search

Design eye-catching scientific posters in minutes.

Scientific Poster Generation

Systematic Literature Review

One task is running at the moment. Your messages will be shown right after.

Drag and drop or click here to browse

Loved by <highlight>1 million+</highlight> researchers

Extract a list of specific topics and their sources from unstructured text

Topics

Compare and analyze relevant papers that matches with your search

Papers

Get insights from PDFs and bookmarked papers from your library

My library

Recent searches

Try searching for:

Catch AI-generated content in scholarly and non-scholarly content

{ai} Detector

Ai Writer

Get PDF Summaries, highlighted text explanations 

Chat with PDF

Effortlessly create in-text citations and bibliographies in APA and 2,500 other formats

Citation generator

Get explanations, summaries, and answers on academic papers

Ease up your research workflow with {scispace}'s cohort of exciting AI tools

Elevate your academic writing skills and convey your ideas the way you want

Paraphraser

Explore our range of reading and writing tools

Your file is being prepared and should be ready in a few minutes. If it's a large file, it might take a bit longer. You can close this window, and we'll email you the file when it's done.

You have reached a maximum limit of <strong>{limit}</strong> columns in the table. Remove at least <strong>1</strong> column to add or create another one.

Malcolm F. Skinner

Author Tools

Chat about Author

Papers

Long-term impacts of forest harvesting related soil disturbance on log product yields and economic potential in a New Zealand forest