Identifying the optimal way to process retired batteries has gained attention from academics and industry. High energy and power density requirements of electric vehicles (EVs) might cause batteries to be retired together with the vehicle that could still be used in other applications. Therefore, transferring batteries into “second-life” applications has the potential to optimize costs and resource utilization. The scope of this work is to give a perspective on challenges that hinder second-life business models. First, the battery life cycle is considered, showing potential costly phases that are necessary for second life applications. After this, requirements of typically discussed second-life applications and battery availability challenges are analyzed. Advanced battery diagnostics are necessary, and missing open standards for the exchange of design and status information are described. Exploiting the potential of a second life requires addressing challenges during the development process. Therefore, the last section describes challenges of developing multi-life battery systems. 

Challenges of second-life concepts for retired electric vehicle batteries

Experimental degradation study of a commercial lithium-ion battery

There has been a rapid increase in government efforts to expand electric vehicle markets by deploying fast-charging stations, promoting uptake through greater investment, and by enacting supportive policies. Government support and private investment have contributed to the expansion of electric vehicles in many countries. The aim of this study is to highlight and analyze the most critical aspects of the expansion of the electric vehicle market, regarding technologies, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, opportunities, and barriers in Europe. Our study analyzes the progress of electric vehicles by reviewing recent literature based on technology, policy, and government measurements. This study provides comprehensive information on electric vehicles and perspectives that are critical to policymakers, car manufacturers, consumers, and the community. To achieve favorable results, governments should invest in developing electric vehicles and battery technologies, provide subsidies, and develop charging infrastructure. Furthermore, by analyzing current EV sales in ten countries around the world, we assess the operating costs of electric vehicles. Overall EV cost of ownership is influenced by grid electricity price, cost of financing, location, carbon tax, wind speed, and solar insolation.

/pdf/a-comprehensive-study-on-the-expansion-of-electric-vehicles-1bzxjh1h.pdf

A Comprehensive Study on the Expansion of Electric Vehicles in Europe

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have become the preferred power source for electric vehicles (EVs) due to their high energy density, low self-discharge rate, and long cycle life. Over the past decade, technological enhancements accompanied by massive cost reductions have enabled the growing market diffusion of EVs. This diffusion has resulted in customized and cost-effective Li-ion battery cell designs tailored to automotive requirements. This study describes design trends in Li-ion batteries from the pack to the electrode level based on empirical data, including pack energy, cell capacity, outer cell dimensions and formats, energy density, specific energy, and electrode properties, such as active material selection, porosities, and component thicknesses. Market share-weighted findings imply several trends, such as (1) increasing cell dimensions, with the longest cells reaching 500 mm (pouch) and almost 1000 mm (prismatic) in 2021, (2) increasing differentiation between either high-energy or low-cost cathode and anode materials, and (3) increasing cell energy, equivalent to gaining about 100% (energy density) and 70% (specific energy) compared to the 2010 and 2021 averages. Despite these improvements, this study finds that the widespread market diffusion of the latest cell technologies proceeds slower than industry announcements suggest and that several well-known, literature-proofed potentials are not yet fully exploited.

/pdf/trends-in-automotive-battery-cell-design-a-statistical-1tvr1k09.pdf

Trends in Automotive Battery Cell Design: A Statistical Analysis of Empirical Data


 Battery research depends upon up-to-date information on the cell characteristics found in current electric vehicles, which is exacerbated by the deployment of novel formats and architectures. This necessitates open access to cell characterization data. Therefore, this study examines the architecture and performance of first-generation Tesla 4680 cells in detail, both by electrical characterization and thermal investigations at cell-level and by disassembling one cell down to the material level including a three-electrode analysis. The cell teardown reveals the complex cell architecture with electrode disks of hexagonal symmetry as well as an electrode winding consisting of a double-sided and homogeneously coated cathode and anode, two separators and no mandrel. A solvent-free anode fabrication and coating process can be derived. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy as well as differential voltage, incremental capacity and three-electrode analysis confirm a NMC811 cathode and a pure graphite anode without silicon. On cell-level, energy densities of 622.4Wh/L and 232.5Wh/kg were determined while characteristic state-of-charge dependencies regarding resistance and impedance behavior are revealed using hybrid pulse power characterization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. A comparatively high surface temperature of 70°C is observed when charging at 2C without active cooling. All measurement data of this characterization study are provided as open source.

Lithium-Ion Cells in Automotive Applications: Tesla 4680 Cylindrical Cell Teardown and Characterization

Quantifying the state of the art of electric powertrains in battery electric vehicles: Range, efficiency, and lifetime from component to system level of the Volkswagen ID.3

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Quantifying the state of the art of electric powertrains in battery electric vehicles: Range, efficiency, and lifetime from component to system level of the Volkswagen ID.3