▪ Abstract Episodic memory is a neurocognitive (brain/mind) system, uniquely different from other memory systems, that enables human beings to remember past experiences. The notion of episodic memory was first proposed some 30 years ago. At that time it was defined in terms of materials and tasks. It was subsequently refined and elaborated in terms of ideas such as self, subjective time, and autonoetic consciousness. This chapter provides a brief history of the concept of episodic memory, describes how it has changed (indeed greatly changed) since its inception, considers criticisms of it, and then discusses supporting evidence provided by (a) neuropsychological studies of patterns of memory impairment caused by brain damage, and (b) functional neuroimaging studies of patterns of brain activity of normal subjects engaged in various memory tasks. I also suggest that episodic memory is a true, even if as yet generally unappreciated, marvel of nature.

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Episodic Memory: From Mind to Brain

The Nature of Recollection and Familiarity: A Review of 30 Years of Research

Positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have been extensively used to explore the functional neuroanatomy of cognitive functions. Here we review 275 PET and fMRI studies of attention (sustained, selective, Stroop, orientation, divided), perception (object, face, space/motion, smell), imagery (object, space/ motion), language (written/spoken word recognition, spoken/ no spoken response), working memory (verbal/numeric, object, spatial, problem solving), semantic memory retrieval (categorization, generation), episodic memory encoding (verbal, object, spatial), episodic memory retrieval (verbal, nonverbal, success, effort, mode, context), priming (perceptual, conceptual), and procedural memory (conditioning, motor, and nonmotor skill learning). To identify consistent activation patterns associated with these cognitive operations, data from 412 contrasts were summarized at the level of cortical Brodmann's areas, insula, thalamus, medial-temporal lobe (including hippocampus), basal ganglia, and cerebellum. For perception and imagery, activation patterns included primary and secondary regions in the dorsal and ventral pathways. For attention and working memory, activations were usually found in prefrontal and parietal regions. For language and semantic memory retrieval, typical regions included left prefrontal and temporal regions. For episodic memory encoding, consistently activated regions included left prefrontal and medial-temporal regions. For episodic memory retrieval, activation patterns included prefrontal, medial-temporal, and posterior midline regions. For priming, deactivations in prefrontal (conceptual) or extrastriate (perceptual) regions were consistently seen. For procedural memory, activations were found in motor as well as in non-motor brain areas. Analysis of regional activations across cognitive domains suggested that several brain regions, including the cerebellum, are engaged by a variety of cognitive challenges. These observations are discussed in relation to functional specialization as well as functional integration.

Imaging Cognition II: An Empirical Review of 275 PET and fMRI Studies

Empathy accounts for the naturally occurring subjective experience of similarity between the feelings expressed by self and others without loosing sight of whose feelings belong to whom. Empathy involves not only the affective experience of the other person’s actual or inferred emotional state but also some minimal recognition and understanding of another’s emotional state. In light of multiple levels of analysis ranging from developmental psychology, social psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and clinical neuropsychology, this article proposes a model of empathy that involves parallel and distributed processing in a number of dissociable computational mechanisms. Shared neural representations, self-awareness, mental flexibility, and emotion regulation constitute the basic macrocomponents of empathy, which are underpinned by specific neural systems. This functional model may be used to make specific predictions about the various empathy deficits that can be encountered in different forms of social and neu...

The functional architecture of human empathy

LaBar and Cabeza review the powerful effects of emotion on memory. These influences are mediated by the amygdala and its interactions with medial temporal and prefrontal regions, and affect memory from the encoding and consolidation stages through to long-term retrieval.

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Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory

Memory impairments associated with hippocampal versus parahippocampal-gyrus atrophy: an MR volumetry study in Alzheimer's disease.

Isolated retrograde amnesia is defined as impaired recollection of experiences pre-dating brain injury with relatively preserved anterograde learning and memory. We present findings from a patient (M.L.) with isolated retrograde amnesia following severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) that address hypotheses of the interrelationships of focal neuropathology, episodic memory and the self. M.L. is densely amnesic for experiences predating his injury, but shows normal anterograde memory performance on a variety of standard tests of recall and recognition. The cognitive processes underlying this performance were examined with the remember/know technique, which permits separation of episodic from non-episodic contributions to memory tests by quantifying subjects' reports of re-experiencing aspects of the encoding episode. The results demonstrated that M.L. does not episodically re-experience post-injury events to the same extent as control subjects, although he can use familiarity or other non-episodic processes to distinguish events he has experienced from those he has not experienced. M.L.'s MRI showed damage to the right ventral frontal cortex and underlying white matter, including the uncinate fasciculus, a frontotemporal band of fibres previously hypothesized to mediate retrieval of specific events from one's personal past. Recent functional neuroimaging evidence of an association between right frontal lobe functioning and episodic retrieval demands suggest that M.L.'s memory deficits are related to this focal injury. This hypothesis was supported by right frontal polar hypoactivation in M.L. in response to episodic retrieval demands when he was examined with a cognitive activation H2(15)O PET paradigm that reliably activated this frontal region in both healthy controls and patients with TBI carefully matched to M.L. (but without isolated retrograde amnesia). He also showed increased left inferomedial temporal activation relative to control subjects, suggesting that his spared anterograde memory is mediated through increased reliance on medial temporal lobe structures. Re-experiencing events as part of one's past is based on autonoetic awareness, i.e. awareness of oneself as a continuous entity across time. This form of awareness also supports the formulation of future goals and the implementation of a behavioural guidance system to achieve them. The findings from this study converge to suggest that M.L. has impaired autonoetic awareness attributable to right ventral frontal lobe injury, including right frontal-temporal disconnection. Reorganized brain systems mediate certain preserved cognitive operations in M.L., but without the normal complement of information concerning the self with respect to both past and future events.

/pdf/episodic-memory-and-the-self-in-a-case-of-isolated-4a4v6lwf6x.pdf

Episodic memory and the self in a case of isolated retrograde amnesia.

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Memory impairments associated with hippocampal versus parahippocampal-gyrus atrophy: an MR volumetry study in Alzheimer's disease.

Episodic memory and the self in a case of isolated retrograde amnesia.