The field of pixel detectors has grown strongly in recent years through progress in CMOS technology, which permits many hundreds of transistors to be implemented in an area of 50–200 μm2. Pulse processing electronics with noise of the order of 100 e− RMS permits to distinguish photons of a few kilo-electron-Volts from background noise. Techniques are under development, which should allow single chip systems (area ∼1 cm2) to be extended to larger areas. This paper gives an introduction into the concept of quantum imaging using direct conversion in segmented semiconductor arrays. An overview of projects from this domain using strip, pad and in particular hybrid pixel detectors will be presented. One of these projects, the Medipix project, is described in more detail. The effect of different correction methods like threshold adjustment and flat field correction is illustrated and new measurement results and images are presented.

/pdf/development-of-segmented-semiconductor-arrays-for-quantum-jtxvwjr0wn.pdf

Development of segmented semiconductor arrays for quantum imaging

The innovation in monolithic and hybrid semiconductor ‘micropattern’ or ‘reactive’ pixel detectors for tracking in particle physics was actually to fit logic and pulse processing electronics with μW power on a pixel area of less than 0.04 mm 2 , retaining the characteristics of a traditional nuclear amplifier chain. The ns timing precision in conjunction with local memory and logic operations allowed event selection at >10 MHz rates with unambiguous track reconstruction even at particle multiplicities >10 cm −2 . The noise in a channel was ∼100 e − rms and enabled binary operation with random noise ‘hits’ at a level 75 μm ×500 μm down to 34 μm ×125 μm have been used by different teams. In binary mode a tracking precision from 6 to 14 μm was obtained, and using analog interpolation one came close to 1 μm . Earlier work, still based on charge integrating imaging circuits, provided a starting point. Two systems each with more than 1 million sensor + readout channels have been built, for WA97-NA57 and for the Delphi very forward tracker. The use of 0.5 μm and 0.25 μm CMOS and enclosed geometry for the transistors in the pixel readout chips resulted in radiation hardness of ∼2 Mrad , respectively, >30 Mrad .

Semiconductor micropattern pixel detectors: a review of the beginnings

An introduction to and an overview of function principles and properties of semiconductor radiation detectors is attempted The paper is addressed to people interested in detector development but not already experts in the field of semiconductor detectors

Silicon radiation detectors

Customized silicon diode detectors are widely used for elementary particle detection for their good spatial resolution. Silicon detectors are also excellent X-ray detectors in the energy range of interest for applications in synchrotron radiation experiments and, with small elements laid out in a two-dimensional array, may provide high performance imaging devices for future diffraction experiments. These pixel detectors are still in the development phase but some are already installed in experiments and within the next few years large area detectors with fast, two-dimensional readout are likely to be available for online acquisition of diffraction patterns. This article describes the technology of silicon pixel detectors and outlines the status of current developments and the performance which could be achieved in a realistic system, indicating the steps required to implement it.

Silicon pixel detectors for X-ray diffraction studies at synchrotron sources.

The invention discloses a MultiAxis Scanning System for x-ray imaging in which a reverse geometry source of x-ray (e.g. a raster-scanned electron beam) and a two-dimensional digital detector are used. The system has several advantages, including providing direct digital information, and three-dimensional radiographs with higher resolution and better contrast.

Method and apparatus for multitaxis scanning system

Specific features of the OMEGA-ION pixel detector are the adjustable delay with external trigger capability and the detector leakage current compensation. A row of pixels can be used for testing the electrical performance of the amplifier and comparator circuits. Detailed results of these electrical tests are presented. A telescope made of three OMEGA-ION hybrid silicon pixel detectors has been successfully tested in the heavy-ion experiment WA94. Each plane consisted of a single detector with 1006 active pixels (500 μm×75 μm), each one being bump-bonded to the readout chip, and arranged in 16 columns and 63 rows respectively. With a sensitive area as small as 8000 × 4725 μm 2 several million events with at least one track originating from the sulphur-sulphur interaction have been recorded in a few hours. Results on target reconstruction, tracking accuracy and efficiency are presented.

/pdf/a-hybrid-silicon-pixel-telescope-tested-in-a-heavy-ion-uiudpkxvvw.pdf

A hybrid silicon pixel telescope tested in a heavy-ion experiment

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A hybrid silicon pixel telescope tested in a heavy-ion experiment