Physiological changes in fish from stress in aquaculture with emphasis on the response and effects of corticosteroids

Introduction Effects of pollution on the teleost ovary Ovarian morphology Lipid production and vitellogenesis Lipids Vitellogenesis Oocyte maturation, ovulation and spawning Egg numbers and viability Effects of pollution on the teleost testis Testicular morphology and spermatogenesis Sperm motility and survival Effects of pollution on the reproductive hormones Hypothalamic and pituitary hormones Ovarian steroids Testicular steroids Hepatic catabolism Other effects of pollution on reproduction Comments and future directions Conclusions Acknowledgement References page 52 53

The effects of pollution on reproduction in fish

Stress in teleosts is an increasingly studied topic because of its interaction with growth, reproduction, immune system and ultimately fitness of the animal. Whether it is for evaluating welfare in aquaculture, adaptive capacities in fish ecology, or to investigate effects of human-induced rapid environmental change, new experimental methods to describe stress physiology in captive or wild fish have flourished. Cortisol has proven to be a reliable indicator of stress and is considered the major stress hormone. Initially principally measured in blood, cortisol measurement methods are now evolving towards lower invasiveness and to allow repeated measurements over time. We present an overview of recent achievements in the field of cortisol measurement in fishes, discussing new alternatives to blood, whole body and eggs as matrices for cortisol measurement, notably mucus, faeces, water, scales and fins. In parallel, new analytical tools are being developed to increase specificity, sensitivity and automation of the measure. The review provides the founding principles of these techniques and introduces their potential as continuous monitoring tools. Finally, we consider promising avenues of research that could be prioritised in the field of stress physiology of fishes.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/jfb.13904

Measuring cortisol, the major stress hormone in fishes.

Steroid molecules are present in all invertebrates, and some of them have established hormonal roles: this is the case for ecdysteroids in arthropods and, to a lesser extent, for vertebrate-type steroids in molluscs. Steroids are not only hormones, they may also fulfill many other functions in chemical communication, chemical defense or even digestive physiology. The increasing occurrence of endocrine disruption problems caused by environmental pollutants, which interfere in particular with reproductive physiology of vertebrates but also of invertebrates has made necessary to better understand the endocrine physiology of the latter and the role of steroids in these processes. So many attempts are being made to better understand the endocrine roles of steroids in arthropods and molluscs, and to establish whether they also fulfill similar functions in other invertebrate phyla. At the moment, both the precise identification of these steroids, the determination of their origin (endogenous versus exogenous) and of their mechanism of action are under active investigation. This research takes profit of the development of genome sequencing programs on many invertebrate species, which allow the identification of receptors and/or biosynthetic enzymes, when related to their vertebrate counterparts, but the story is not so simple, as will be exemplified by estrogen receptors of molluscs.

Steroids in aquatic invertebrates.

Cytochromes p450 in crustacea

Isolation and identification of testosterone from the serum and testes of the American lobster (Homarus americanus).

Bioconversion of steroids by the testes of the American lobster, Homarus americanus, in vitro.

The blood sex hormone levels in sexually mature male atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the Westfield River (pH 4.7) and the Medway River (pH 5.6), Nova Scotia.

The determination of cortisol in fish plasma by radioimmunoassay.

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Papers

Isolation and identification of testosterone from the serum and testes of the American lobster (Homarus americanus).

Bioconversion of steroids by the testes of the American lobster, Homarus americanus, in vitro.

The blood sex hormone levels in sexually mature male atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the Westfield River (pH 4.7) and the Medway River (pH 5.6), Nova Scotia.

The determination of cortisol in fish plasma by radioimmunoassay.