Plants can respond to soil conditions in ways that can not readily be explained in terms of the ability of the roots to take up water and nutrients. Roots may sense difficult conditions in the soil and thence send inhibitory signals to the shoots which harden the plants against the consequences of a deteriorating or restrictive environment, especially if the plants' water supply is at risk. Generally, this behaviour can be interpreted as feedforward responses to the soil becoming too dry or too hard, or to the available soil volume being very small as with bonsai plants, or to roots' becoming infected with pathogens. However, soil that is too soft or in which the roots are forced to grow in very large pores can also induce large conservative responses, the significance of which is unclear. The inhibitory signals may affect stomatal conductance, cell expansion, cell division and the rate of leaf appearance. Their nature is still under debate, and the debate is becoming increasingly complex, which probably signifies that a network of hormonal and other responses is involved in attuning the growth and development of a plant to its environment.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.0016-8025.2001.00802.x

Soil conditions and plant growth

Root biology and genetic improvement for drought avoidance in rice

Compaction implies an increase in soil bulk density and associated with this are increases in soil strength, and decreases in air permeability and hydraulic conductivity. This paper considers the mechanics of compaction and then proceeds to consider the effects of that compaction on the biotic activity in the soil. The elongation of roots through soil is considered in detail and we draw attention to controversy in the literature and the current debate on the appropriateness of models based on the traditional Lockhart approach to root elongation. A model of root elongation which can be used in practice is also discussed. Soil fauna considered include earthworms, which can physically move soil and micro fauna which cannot. Consideration of microbial activity and biological interactions shows that the effect of compaction on a given soil depends on its management history. Further research is required to develop systems of agriculture which are sustainable and ecologically sound, because the effects of tillage and compaction on biological processes in the soil are only partly understood.

Biological effects of soil compaction

Root penetration ability is an important factor for rice drought resistance in areas with soils subject to both compaction and periodic water deficits. However, breeding for root penetration ability is inhibited by the difficulties associated with measuring root traits. Our objective was to identify restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) associated with root penetration ability. Using wax-petrolatum layers as a proxy for compacted soil, we counted the number of vertical root axes penetrating through the layer, the total number of vertical root axes and the number of tillers per plant of 202 recombinant inbred (RI) lines over three replications. As a measure of root penetration ability, we used a root penetration index defined as the percent of the total number of vertical root axes that penetrated through a wax-petrolatum layer. The RI population exhibited a wide range in the number of penetrating roots axes (10–115 roots), the total number of roots axes (74–226 roots), tillers per plant (6–18), and in the root penetration index (0.11–0.71). Single-marker and interval quantitative trait analyses were conducted to identify RFLP loci associated with the number of penetrating roots, total root number, root penetration index, and tiller number. Four quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were associated with the number of penetrated roots, 19 with the total root number, six QTLs with the root penetration index and ten with tiller number. Individually, these QTLs accounted for a maximum of 8% of the variation in the number of penetrating roots, 19% of the variation in total root number, 13% of the variation in root penetration index and 14% of the variation in tiller number as estimated from regressions. The multimarker regression model accounting for the greatest proportion of the variation in the root penetration index was a three-marker model that accounted for 34% of the variation. Two-marker models accounted for 13% of the variation in the number of penetrated roots, 25% of the variation in total root number, and 21% of the variation in tiller number. This is the first research paper to apply RFLP quantitative trait analysis to dissect genetic loci associated with the total number of roots, root penetration ability and tiller number.

Mapping quantitative trait loci associated with root penetration ability in rice (Oryza sativa L.).

The main features of the climate and soils of the main crop production areas of different countries in north-west Europe are outlined, and the main crops grown are summarised. The need for tillage is considered; provided that suitable conditions exist for germination, root growth is most likely to be influenced by mechanical impedance and aeration. Traditional tillage may not always be necessary and may hinder timely sowing of crops. Shallow tillage can facilitate planting a larger area of crops closer to the optimum dates in autumn and in spring, which also saves energy and labour. Research experience with reduced tillage over the last 20–25 years is reviewed. Shallow tillage has been as good as mouldboard ploughing at the traditional depth in most countries on a wide range of soil types, if weed control was satisfactory. Direct drilling has often proved satisfactory in the absence of crop residues for autumn sown crops (wheat, barley, oil-seed rape and beans) where drainage (and therefore soil aeration) was not limiting. Direct drilling has not generally been successful for spring sown crops. Direct drilling is inappropriate for root crops, but strip tillage for sugar beet may become practicable. Some research on soil conditions associated with these experiments is considered. Crop residues are a major constraint to shallow tillage or direct drilling of autumn sown crops. The limitations of reduced tillage due to inadequate weed control, wheel-traffic damage and unsatisfactory drainage are reviewed. The need for occasional deep loosening is also discussed. Where the amount of residues is small, much tillage may be unnecessary, except to relieve compaction by wheels; bed systems or wide-span gantries to avoid wheel damage could become practical developments for some crops.

Reduced tillage in north-west Europe—A review

The relative sensitivity of spring barley, spring field beans and sugar beet crops to soil compaction

Summary
The response of spring barley (Hordeum vulgare, cvs Carnival and Atem), faba beans (Vicia faba, cv. Maris Bead), sugar beet (Beta vulgaris, cv. Monoire), forage maize (Zea mays, cv. Leader), forage peas (Pisum sativum, cv. Poneka) and white turnip (Brassica campestris, cv. Barkant) to topsoil compaction was investigated in a three year trial. Soil compaction was induced by tractor wheeling after crop sowing.

Compaction reduced leaf area and dry matter accumulation in all crops in every season. Yield of barley was reduced by 29%, 27% and 40% in 1984, 1986 and 1987 respectively. Yield of maize, peas and turnip decreased by 33%, 14% and 13% in 1986 and 25%, 16% and 19% in 1987. Yields of beans and sugar beet were decreased by 34% and 35% respectively in 1984.

Light interception was decreased in all crops in all three years of study but, with the exception of maize in 1987, the efficiency of conversion of radiant energy to dry matter was not significantly affected by soil compaction. It is concluded that reduced dry matter production and yield due to soil compaction was more a consequence of reduced light interception because of restricted leaf area development rather than as a result of an impaired ability of crops to utilise intercepted radiant energy.

Effect of soil compaction on growth, yield, and light interception of selected crops.

SUMMARY

The effects of differing soil conditions at two sites on the growth of vining peas are described. The work was carried out over several seasons having contrasting rainfall at the time of crop emergence.



Topsoil compaction induced by tractor wheelings reduced plant population and yield of vining peas by up to 70%. On the compacted plots peas were unable to compensate for the low population which was demonstrated by the inclusion of a non-compacted treatment thinned to the same population as the compacted plots.



The severity of compaction was greatest when soil conditions were dry at emergence and least severe when wet. It is suggested that compaction resulted in increased ethylene production in the root and shoot tissues and this may be a causal agent of the observed growth modifications.



Recultivation of a compacted seed bed prior to sowing resulted in better establishment and higher yields than with the topsoil compacted but final yields were variable when compared to a ploughed control.



Double digging did not increase yield above a ploughed control. In one year a 25% yield reduction was attributed to this treatment. The reasons for the reduction in yield are complex but it is suggested that the causal agent was modfied soil and plant water relations resulting in altered crop physiology.



Tramlining the crop reduced yield in one year but when the frequency of wheeling damage is considered they would be unlikely to affect productivity.

Soil compaction and the growth of vining peas

A computer simulation describing water extraction by crop root systems

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The relative sensitivity of spring barley, spring field beans and sugar beet crops to soil compaction

Effect of soil compaction on growth, yield, and light interception of selected crops.

Soil compaction and the growth of vining peas

A computer simulation describing water extraction by crop root systems