The first step in the digestion process is mastication, or chewing, when food is broken down, lubricated with saliva, and formed into a cohesive mass known as the food bolus. Upon swallowing, the bolus moves to the stomach and undergoes further breakdown during gastric digestion. The subject of this review is the formation of the food bolus and its subsequent breakdown in the stomach. Bolus formation has been widely studied, especially in terms of food particle size and lubrication. However, information about bolus disintegration is limited, and this review focuses on the breakdown of bread and starch-based foods. Bolus formation and disintegration are key steps in the overall digestion process, as they control the rate at which ingested food components and nutrients are absorbed and released into the body. Information on the rate kinetics of bolus disintegration is necessary in developing a quantitative understanding of the food digestion process.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2011.00172.x

Bolus Formation and Disintegration during Digestion of Food Carbohydrates

The association between Occlusion Time and Temporomandibular Disorders

Aim of this study was to introduce a feasible and valid technique for the assessment of masticatory performance that is comparable to the standard sieving method. Twenty-one chewing samples (Optosil) comminuted by healthy dentate adults were analysed with a sieving and scanning method. Scanning was performed using a conventional flatbed scanner (1200dpi). All scanned images underwent image analysis (ImageJ), which yielded descriptive parameters such as area, best-fitting ellipse for each particle. Of the 2D-image, a volume was estimated for each particle, which was converted into a weight. To receive a discrete distribution of particle sizes comparable to sieving, five chewing samples were used to calculate a size-dependent area-volume-conversion factor. The sieving procedure was carried out with a stack of 10 sieves, and the retained particles per sieve were weighed. The cumulated weights yielded by either method were curve-fitted with the Rosin-Rammler distribution to determine the median particle size x(50) . The Rosin-Rammler distributions for sieving and scanning resemble each other. The distributions show a high correlation (0·919-1·0, n= 21, P<0·01, Pearson's correlation coefficient). The median particle sizes vary between 3·83 and 4·77mm (mean: 4·31) for scanning and 3·53 and 4·55mm (mean: 4·21) for sieving. On average, scanning overestimates the x(50) values by 2·4%. A modified Bland-Altman plot reveals that 95% of the x(50) values fall within 10% of the average x(50) . The scanning method is a valid, simple and feasible method to determine masticatory performance.

Comparison of particle-size distributions determined by optical scanning and by sieving in the assessment of masticatory performance.

Objectives
The goal of this meta-analysis was to evaluate how muscular activity, measured by electromyography (EMG), differs among edentulous patients treated with a complete denture (CD), removable implant overdentures (IO), implant-retained fixed dental prostheses (IFDP), and dentates. The differences during clenching and chewing were of particular interest.

Materials and Methods
An electronic literature review was carried out on MEDLINE (Pubmed) and the Cochrane Library covering the period January 1980 through September 2013. This was accomplished independently by three different reviewers and supplemented by a manual search. The review included randomized controlled trials, controlled clinical trials, and clinical trials which evaluated surface electromyography, bite force, chewing, and implants or complete dentures. In addition, the research was adjusted using MeSH terms.

Results
The search garnered 646 titles and abstracts. Sixteen articles which met the inclusion criteria were analyzed. The effect size for muscular activity after implant support increased after therapy during clenching 2.18 (95% CI: 1.14, 3.23) and during chewing 1.45 (95%CI: 1.21, 1.69). Moreover, the EMG data of IO and IFDP groups (pooled) were lower than that of dentate control subjects during clenching (effect size: −1.01 [95%CI: −1.37, −0.65]). In contrast, the IFDP-wearers showed higher values than dentates during chewing. Among the edentulous control patients, the IO and IFDP groups (pooled) displayed higher values during clenching (effect size: 1.12 [95%CI: 0.7, 1.55]) and chewing (effect size: 1.33 [95%CI: −0.57, 2.10]). Furthermore, the muscular activity during chewing correlated with the hardness of the food.

Conclusion
In general, edentulous patients with CDs can achieve a greater degree of muscular activity after rehabilitation with IOs during clenching and chewing. During clenching, patients with IFDPs achieved higher values than those with dentates. The muscular activity increases with the hardness of the food.

EMG correlations of edentulous patients with implant overdentures and fixed dental prostheses compared to conventional complete dentures and dentates: a systematic review and meta‐analysis

The purpose of this study was to quantitatively evaluate the effects of experimental leg length discrepancies on body posture and dental occlusion. Thirty asymptomatic subjects (15 males and 15 females, ages 19-33, mean age 25.6 years) were included in this study and randomly assigned to one of two groups based on a table of random numbers. The only difference between group A and group B was the sequence of testing. Experimental leg length discrepancies were provided by using ten types of insoles with heights ranging from one to ten mm at one mm intervals, placed under both feet. The MatScan (Nitta Corp., Osaka, Japan) system was used to measure changes in body posture (center of foot pressure: COP) while subjects maintained the following three postural positions: 1. natural standing posture (control); 2. control with a heel lift under the right foot; or 3. control with a heel lift under the left foot. The T-Scan II system (Nitta Corp., Osaka, Japan) was used to analyze the results of changes in dental occlusion (center of occlusal force: COF) in the above-mentioned three postural positions. When subjects used a heel lift of six mm or more under the right foot, lateral weight distribution (LWD) shifted to the right side compared to the control (p<0.05). When a heel lift of four mm or more was used under the left foot, LWD shifted to the left side compared to the control (p<0.05). When subjects used a heel lift of eight mm or more under the right foot, occlusal force shifted to the right side compared to the control (p<0.05). When subjects used a heel lift of seven mm or more under the left foot, occlusal force shifted to the left side compared to the control (p<0.05). Based on these findings, it was concluded that leg length discrepancy affected body posture and dental occlusion.

Effects of Experimental Leg Length Discrepancies on Body Posture and Dental Occlusion

The influence of the occlusal vertical dimension on masticatory muscle activities and hyoid bone position in complete denture wearers.

The effect of mastication on occlusal parameters in healthy volunteers.

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The influence of the occlusal vertical dimension on masticatory muscle activities and hyoid bone position in complete denture wearers.

The effect of mastication on occlusal parameters in healthy volunteers.