Particle detectors made from artificial diamond have great promise for future experiments in particle physics because they are far less vulnerable to radiation damage than any other detector type. We review the history of diamond detectors and describe their current state of development. We also discuss the evidence which proves the resistance of these detectors to damage by various forms of incident radiation.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-4885/63/8/203/pdf

Diamond detectors in particle physics

Semi-insulating GaAs material of 500 μm thickness grown using the Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski (LEC) method has been compensated with chromium to produce high resistivity single crystals suitable for spectroscopic imaging applications. Results are presented for the performance of three small pixel detectors each with 80×80 pixels on a 250 μm pitch, fabricated with metal contacts and bonded to a spectroscopic imaging ASIC. Current–voltage measurements demonstrated a material resistivity of 2.5×10 9  Ω cm at room temperature. At an optimised bias voltage, the average energy resolution at 60 keV (FWHM) was in the range 2.8–3.3 keV per pixel. An analysis of the voltage dependent X-ray spectroscopy suggests that the electron mobility lifetime ( μτ e ) for each detector is in the range 2.1–4.5×10 −5  cm 2  V −1 . The spectroscopic imaging capability of the detectors is also demonstrated in X-ray absorption spectroscopy measurements.

Chromium compensated gallium arsenide detectors for X-ray and γ-ray spectroscopic imaging

We present room temperature measurements on 200 /spl mu/m thick GaAs pixel detectors, which were hybridized to silicon readout circuits. The whole detector array contains 320/spl times/240 square shaped pixel with a pitch of 38 /spl mu/m and is based on semi-insulating liquid-encapsulated Czochralski (LEC) GaAs material. After fabricating and dicing, the detector chips were indium bump flip chip bonded to CMOS readout circuits based on charge integration and finally evaluated. This readout chip was originally designed for the readout of flip chip bonded infrared detectors, but appears to be suitable for X-ray applications as well. A bias voltage between 50 V and 100 V was sufficient to operate the detector at room temperature. The detector array did respond to X-ray radiation by an increase in current due to production of electron hole pairs by the ionization processes. Images of various objects and slit patterns were acquired by using a standard X-ray source for dental imaging. The new X-ray hybrid detector was analyzed with respect to its imaging properties. Due to the high absorption coefficient for X-rays in GaAs and the small pixel size, the sensor shows a high modulation transfer function up to the Nyquist frequency.

X-ray imaging using a 320/spl times/240 hybrid GaAs pixel detector

X-ray imaging using a 320×240 hybrid GaAs pixel detector

In this work, the requirements of detector-grade semiconductor materials for radiation detectors, applicable in X-ray digital radiology, are identified. The study includes 12 various bulk semi-insulating (SI) GaAs single crystals grown by LEC and VGF methods, undoped and Cr-doped, obtained from 8 different suppliers. Conductivity, Hall, glow discharge mass spectrometry (GDMS), etch pit density (EPD), scanning electron beam induced current (S-EBIC), X-ray and laser scattering tomography (LST) techniques are used for the bulk SI GaAs material evaluation. The radiation detectors fabricated on these SI GaAs single crystals have been characterized by capacitance methods and their performances have been evaluated from detected pulse height spectra of 57Co. The correlation between the physical characteristics of the base materials and the performance of the detectors is demonstrated and discussed. Key detector-grade SI GaAs parameters, useful for material evaluation, are identified.

Performance of semi-insulating GaAs-based radiation detectors: Role of key physical parameters of base materials

GaAs Schottky diodes made by commercial undoped semi-insulating (SI) material have been shown to work well as radiation detectors This material offers high radiation resistance together with high charge carrier mobility, good signal-to-noise ratio and a good detection efficiency for minimum ionizing particles To optimise the detector performance of Schottky diodes made on SI-GaAs, the influence of the compensation on the formation of the space charge region and charge collection efficiency (CCE) for alpha particles was studied A strong dependence of the CCE on the ionized state of the arsenic antisite defect As/sub Ga//sup +/ and the resistivity determined from the Norde plot was observed Also the influence of the compensation on the Schottky barrier height and space charge density can been seen

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel3/4297/12366/00571119.pdf

Influence of the compensation in semi-insulating GaAs on the particle detector performance

Radiation detectors work as Schottky devices. The Schottky contact of the investigated detectors consists of a Ti/Pt/Au layer on the front-side of a 500?m thick semi-insulating GaAs substrate. The back-side is an alloyed Ge/Au ohmic contact.The structure of these contacts are squares with sides of between 1,5mm and 5mm. In order to seperate the behaviour of the contacts, an independent determination of those parameters of the bulk material which are responsible for a satisfactory functioning of the detector are necessary. We present a theoretical model of the detector which simulates detector properties according to relevant parameters such as the resistivity p, the mobility ? of the charge carriers, the energy level EDD and concentration NDD of the bulk-defects and the leakage-current jL of the device. The aim of this study is to determine these parameters experimentally and compare materials from different suppliers. The relevant parameters are then used for the detector simulation.

Characterization of semi-insulating GaAs for detector application

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Influence of the compensation in semi-insulating GaAs on the particle detector performance

Characterization of semi-insulating GaAs for detector application