Brain plasticity refers to the brainis ability to change structure and function Experience is a major stimulant of brain plasticity in animal species as diverse as insects and humans It is now clear that experience produces multiple, dissociable changes in the brain including increases in dendritic length, increases (or decreases) in spine density, synapse formation, increased glial activity, and altered metabolic activity These anatomical changes are correlated with behavioral differences between subjects with and without the changes Experience-dependent changes in neurons are affected by various factors including aging, gonadal hormones, trophic factors, stress, and brain pathology We discuss the important role that changes in dendritic arborization play in brain plasticity and behavior, and we consider these changes in the context of changing intrinsic circuitry of the cortex in processes such as learning

/pdf/brain-plasticity-and-behavior-eh85uqto8k.pdf

Brain plasticity and behavior

The mushroom bodies (MBs) are prominent structures in the Drosophila brain that are essential for olfactory learning and memory. Characterization of the development and projection patterns of individual MB neurons will be important for elucidating their functions. Using mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (Lee, T. and Luo, L. (1999) Neuron 22, 451-461), we have positively marked the axons and dendrites of multicellular and single-cell mushroom body clones at specific developmental stages. Systematic clonal analysis demonstrates that a single mushroom body neuroblast sequentially generates at least three types of morphologically distinct neurons. Neurons projecting into the (gamma) lobe of the adult MB are born first, prior to the mid-3rd instar larval stage. Neurons projecting into the alpha' and beta' lobes are born between the mid-3rd instar larval stage and puparium formation. Finally, neurons projecting into the alpha and beta lobes are born after puparium formation. Visualization of individual MB neurons has also revealed how different neurons acquire their characteristic axon projections. During the larval stage, axons of all MB neurons bifurcate into both the dorsal and medial lobes. Shortly after puparium formation, larval MB neurons are selectively pruned according to birthdays. Degeneration of axon branches makes early-born gamma neurons retain only their main processes in the peduncle, which then project into the adult gamma lobe without bifurcation. In contrast, the basic axon projections of the later-born (alpha'/beta') larval neurons are preserved during metamorphosis. This study illustrates the cellular organization of mushroom bodies and the development of different MB neurons at the single cell level. It allows for future studies on the molecular mechanisms of mushroom body development.

Development of the Drosophila mushroom bodies: sequential generation of three distinct types of neurons from a neuroblast

Brain plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change structure and function. Experience is a major stimulant of brain plasticity in animal species as diverse as insects and humans. It is now clear that experience produces multiple, dissociable changes in the brain including increases in dendritic length, increases (or decreases) in spine density, synapse formation, increased glial activity, and altered metabolic activity. These anatomical changes are correlated with behavioral differences between subjects with and without the changes. Experience-dependent changes in neurons are affected by various factors including aging, gonadal hormones, trophic factors, stress, and brain pathology. We discuss the important role that changes in dendritic arborization play in brain plasticity and behavior, and we consider these changes in the context of changing intrinsic circuitry of the cortex in processes such as learning.

/pdf/brain-plasticity-and-behavior-3512cjh0ly.pdf

Brain plasticity and behavior.

Graph analysis has become an increasingly popular tool for characterizing topological properties of brain connectivity networks. Within this approach, the brain is modeled as a graph comprising N nodes connected by M edges. In functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies, the nodes typically represent brain regions and the edges some measure of interaction between them. These nodes are commonly defined using a variety of regional parcellation templates, which can vary both in the volume sampled by each region, and the number of regions parcellated. Here, we sought to investigate how such variations in parcellation templates affect key graph analytic measures of functional brain organization using resting-state fMRI in thirty healthy volunteers. Seven different parcellation resolutions (84, 91, 230, 438, 890, 1314 and 4320 regions) were investigated. We found that gross inferences regarding network topology, such as whether the brain is small-world or scale-free, were robust to the template used, but that both absolute values of, and individual differences in, specific parameters such as path length, clustering, small-worldness and degree distribution descriptors varied considerably across the resolutions studied. These findings underscore the need to consider the effect that a specific parcellation approach has on graph analytic findings in human fMRI studies, and indicate that results obtained using different templates may not be directly comparable.

/pdf/network-scaling-effects-in-graph-analytic-studies-of-human-54g0hwzu4r.pdf

Network scaling effects in graph analytic studies of human resting-state fMRI data

Control of Male Sexual Behavior and Sexual Orientation in Drosophila by the fruitless Gene

The Drosophila brain is highly variable in size. Female flies grown in densely populated larval cultures have up to 20% more Kenyon cell fibers in their mushroom bodies than flies from low-density cultures. These differences in the number of Kenyon cell fibers are accompanied by differences in the volume of the calyx. During imaginal life, volume changes are observed in the calyces, all parts of the optic lobes, the central brain, and central complex. They occur not only in the first week of adulthood but also between days 8 and 16. Factors causing these changes are little understood. In flies kept in pairs for 1 week, the size of the calyx but not of the lobula is influenced by the sex of the partner. Females have larger calyces if the partner is female than if it is male. Males seem to be affected in the same way. Females living solitarily in little food vials for the first week of their imaginal life have smaller lobulae than females having spent the week in a populated flight cage. Males and females of heterosexual groups of 40 animals have still smaller lobulae, medullae, and calyces than their siblings kept in isolation. In addition, brain size is influenced by yet unidentified factors causing long and short trends. The data suggest that in Drosophila, most neuropil regions of the brain are continuously reorganized throughout life in response to specific living conditions.

https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/15/3/1951.full.pdf

Structural plasticity in the Drosophila brain

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Structural plasticity in the Drosophila brain