Publisher Summary A refractive index can be increased by ion implantation by changes in density and structure, by the addition of high-polarizability impurity ions, by a reduction of the plasma effect that increases the index and that is most important in the wavelength region far from the energy gap, and by absorption changing in the index in the region of the gap, that is, via the Kramers–Kronig relation. This chapter discusses the optical properties of implanted semiconductors, electrooptic components formed by ion implantation, general principles that determine most luminescent systems, effects of implantation temperature, luminescence centers in LiF-Mg-Ti radiation dosimeters, and use of line spectra in defect studies. In the LiF system, the luminescence bands are broad, and if alternative versions of the same complex exist, they cannot be resolved from the spectra. The addition, by implantation, of ions with incomplete inner electron shells opens up new possibilities as the lattice distortions of the free-ion energy levels are strongly perturbed by the defects in the neighborhood of the ion.

Optical Effects of Ion Implantation

Transmission electron microscopy is used to examine the nature of microcracking about small-scale indentations in two highly brittle solids, sapphire and carborundum. The observed crack geometry is discussed in terms of an earlier model of indentation fracture beneath a point force, in which both loading and unloading half-cycles contribute to the crack growth. The residual interfaces are generally found to exhibit moire fringe contrast, and occasionally to contain dislocation networks. These observations are discussed in relation to spontaneous closure and healing mechanisms, and the associated “lattice mismatch” is estimated at about one part in a thousand. It is suggested that cleavage steps comprise the main source of obstruction to lattice restoration across the interfaces. Mechanical and thermal treatments of the indented specimens are found to influence the extent of the residual cracking. Some practical implications concerning the strength degradation of brittle solids are discussed.

Electron microscopy of microcracking about indentations in aluminium oxide and silicon carbide

X-ray interference fringes observed in X-ray topographs of silicon crystals bombarded with high energy ions (dose > 1015 ions/cm2) are described. The X-ray fringes are used to analyze the deformation state of the crystal. It is shown that the bombarded crystal is a special kind of bicrystal composed of a thick perfect bulk crystal topped by a thin practically perfect layer crystal. Both crystals have the same crystallographic orientation and the same lattice constant but are separated by a small rigid body displacement. Contrast and geometry of the observed X-ray patterns agree with the theoretical patterns calculated by Bonse and Hart [1] on the basis of a layer/bulk bicrystal model, and are also supported through transmission electron microscopy results. The ion range calculated from the interference fringes is in good agreement with the experimentally determined range.



Rontgeninterferenzen, beobachtet in Rontgentopogrammen von Siliziumkristallen, die mit monoenergetischen Ionen (Dosis > 1015 Ionen/cm2) beschossen wurden, werden beschrieben. Mit Hilfe der Interferenzstreifen wird der Deformationszustand des Kristalls analysiert. Es wird gezeigt, das der bombardierte Kristall einen Doppelkristall darstellt, der aus einem dicken und einem dunnen Teil besteht. Beide Kristalle haben dieselbe kristallographische Orientierung und dieselbe Gitterkonstante, sind aber gegeneinander als starre Korper verschoben. Der Kontrast und die Geometrie der beobachteten Interferenzstreifen ist mit den von Bonse und Hart [1] auf Grund des Doppelkristallmodells berechneten Interferenzmustern in guter Ubereinstimmung. Die experimentellen und theoretischen Ergebnisse sind auch mit den Ergebnissen der Elektronenmikroskopie in Ubereinstimmung. Die Eindringtiefe der Ionen kann mit Hilfe der Interferenzstreifen berechnet werden und stimmt mit den experimentellen Ergebnissen uberein.

X‐Ray Investigation of Lattice Deformations in Silicon Induced through High‐Energy Ion Implantation

Measurements of the surface topography of ion‐bombarded GaAs and Si show a marked elevation of the irradiated portion of the surface relative to the surrounding unirradiated material. The average lattice atom displacement brought about by the expansion can cause anomalously high yields of displaced atoms as measured by backscattering of particles incident along channeling directions.

LATTICE EXPANSION AND STRAIN IN ION-BOMBARDED GaAs AND Si.

X-ray interferometers were the first optical instruments which utilized many Bragg reflecting components in monolithic blocks of perfect crystal. They have made important contributions to our knowledge of fundamental constants, of Bragg reflexion X-ray optics, of strains and defects in crystals and of the optical constants of materials in the X-ray region of the electro-magnetic spectrum. Based on an oversimplified optical analogue, their mode of operation is described in detail. Current applications of crystal interferometers and possible future work is briefly reviewed.

Review Lecture: Ten Years of X-Ray Interferometry

The X-ray refractive index of lithium fluoride was measured to an accuracy of a few parts in 109 over the wavelength range from AgKβ1 (λ = 0.497058 A) to CuKα1 (λ = 1.54053 A). From these results the scattering factor for the forward direction and the anomalous dispersion corrections for fluorine were calculated. Good agreement was obtained with the values calculated using Honl's dispersion theory.

X‐Ray Interferometric Measurements of the Forward Scattering Amplitude for Lithium Fluoride

We consider the diffraction of X-rays by a bicrystal consisting of a thick part and a thin part separated by a rigid body translation. Both parts have identical lattice parameters. This simple model and the plane-wave diffraction theory developed herein describe very well the contrast and geometry of the fringes obtained in X-ray diffraction topographs of some silicon crystals bombarded by monoenergetic ions.



Wir untersuchen Rontgeninterferenzen an einem Doppelkristall, der aus einem dicken und einem dunnen Teil besteht. Beide Teile haben dieselbe Gitterkonstante, sind aber gegeneinander als starre Korper verschoben. Dieses einfache Modell und die hier fur den Fall ebener Wellen entwickelte Interferenztheorie beschreiben sehr gut den Kontrast und die Geometrie von Streifenmustern, die man auf Rontgen-Interferenztopographien von Siliziumkristallen beobachten kann, welche mit monoenergetischen Ionen beschossen wurden.

X-Ray Diffraction by a Crystal Containing a Translation Fault

By using successive Bragg reflections in a monolithic block of effectively perfect silicon, both plane wave (Ewald type) and spherical wave (Kato type) Pendellosung fringes have been obtained in the same wedge-shaped crystal. In agreement with the theories, the fringe spacings are the same only at the centre of Bragg reflection and the fringe positions are different in the two cases.



Durch die Anwendung aufeinanderfolgender Bragg-Reflexionen in einem monolitischen Block fehlerfreien Siliziums sind in dem gleichen keilformigen Kristall sowohl Planwellen-(Ewald-Typ) als auch Kugelwellen-(Kato-Typ) Pendellosungsstreifen beobachtet worden. Die Abstande der Streifen sind nur in der Mitte der Braggreflexion gleich, und die Lage der Streifen ist in beiden Fallen verschieden, was mit den Theorien ubereinstimmt.

Direct observations of plane wave and spherical wave Pendellösung fringes

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X‐Ray Investigation of Lattice Deformations in Silicon Induced through High‐Energy Ion Implantation

X‐Ray Interferometric Measurements of the Forward Scattering Amplitude for Lithium Fluoride

X-Ray Diffraction by a Crystal Containing a Translation Fault

Direct observations of plane wave and spherical wave Pendellösung fringes