Silicon heterojunction solar cells: Recent technological development and practical aspects - from lab to industry

To significantly impact climate change, the annual photovoltaic (PV) module production rate must dramatically increase from ∼135 gigawatts (GW) in 2020 to ∼3 terawatts (TW) around 2030. A key knowledge gap is the sustainable manufacturing capacity of existing and future commercial PV cell technologies imposed by scarce metals, and a suitable pathway towards sustainable manufacturing at the multi-TW scale. Assuming an upper material consumption limit as 20% of 2019 global supply, we show that the present industrial implementations of passivated emitter and rear cell (PERC), tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon), and silicon heterojunction (SHJ) cells have sustainable manufacturing capacities of 377 GW (silver-limited), 227 GW (silver-limited) GW and 37 GW (indium-limited), respectively. We propose material consumption targets of 2 mg W−1, 0.38 mg W−1, and 1.8 mg W−1 for silver, indium, and bismuth, respectively, indicating significant material consumption reductions are required to meet the target production rate for sustainable multi-TW scale manufacturing in about ten years from now. The industry needs urgent innovation on screen printing technologies for PERC, TOPCon, and SHJ solar cells to reduce silver consumption beyond expectation in the Industrial Technology Roadmap for PV (ITPRV), or the widespread adoption of existing and proven copper plating technologies. Indium cannot be used in any significant manufacturing capacity for PV production, even for futuristic 30%-efficient tandem devices. The current implementation of low-temperature interconnection schemes using bismuth-based solders will be limited to 330 GW of production. With half the silver-limited sustainable manufacturing capacity as PERC, the limited efficiency gains of SHJ and TOPCon cell technologies do not justify a transition away from industrial PERC, or the introduction of indium- and bismuth limitations for SHJ solar cells. On the other hand, futuristic two-terminal tandems with efficiency potentials over 30% have a unique opportunity to reduce material consumption through substantially reduced series resistance losses.

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Design considerations for multi-terawatt scale manufacturing of existing and future photovoltaic technologies: challenges and opportunities related to silver, indium and bismuth consumption

Coloured Building Integrated Photovoltaics: Influence on Energy Efficiency

Modelling and experimental investigations of microcracks in crystalline silicon photovoltaics: A review

Simulation tools are increasingly employed towards quantifying the lifetime of photovoltaic (PV) modules while providing valuable insights into the various failure modes. The use of the finite element method (FEM) in this regard has been especially popular because of its flexibility and the ability to quantify stress levels for a large variety of scenarios ranging from process-induced stress up to field conditions. The thermo-mechanical behaviour of the module or its components is often considered due to the link with common field failures such as cell cracks, interconnection failures, glass fracture, delamination and many others. However, the approaches used, the various inputs considered and the obtained results are highly scattered and sometimes conflicting. This work provides a structured review of the reported simulation approaches and resulting insights obtained through thermo-mechanical finite element simulations on commercial as well as novel PV module technologies. The influence and validity of various inputs such as the used material models, boundary conditions and other assumptions are discussed. Learnings and best practices can be leveraged by future simulations to expand on and accelerate the design-for-reliability capabilities of finite element models for PV modules.

Stress and strain within photovoltaic modules using the finite element method: A critical review

The interconnection of solar cells by shingling increases the active cell area in photovoltaic modules. Cell-to-module (CTM) gains and losses change significantly. We present models to calculate these gains and losses for shingled cells. Module efficiency and power can be increased with the shingle interconnection technology by +33 Wp and + 1.86% abs in the analyzed design, when compared to common ribbon-based interconnection. The CTM-ratio for efficiency improves due to shingling and also the CTM-ratio for power increases compared to conventional modules with ribbon or wire cell interconnection.

Cell-to-Module (CTM) Analysis for Photovoltaic Modules with Shingled Solar Cells

Influence of Photovoltaic Module Mounting Systems on the Thermo-Mechanical Stresses in Solar Cells by FEM Modelling

Triangular Ribbons for Improved Module Efficiency

Power Loss through Decorative Elements in the Front Glazing of BIPV Modules

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Papers

Cell-to-Module (CTM) Analysis for Photovoltaic Modules with Shingled Solar Cells

Influence of Photovoltaic Module Mounting Systems on the Thermo-Mechanical Stresses in Solar Cells by FEM Modelling

Triangular Ribbons for Improved Module Efficiency

Power Loss through Decorative Elements in the Front Glazing of BIPV Modules