Space weather describes the way in which the Sun, and conditions in space more generally, impact human activity and technology both in space and on the ground. It is now well understood that space weather represents a significant threat to infrastructure resilience, and is a source of risk that is wide-ranging in its impact and the pathways by which this impact may occur. Although space weather is growing rapidly as a field, work rigorously assessing the overall economic cost of space weather appears to be in its infancy. Here, we provide an initial literature review to gather and assess the quality of any published assessments of space weather impacts and socioeconomic studies. Generally speaking, there is a good volume of scientific peer-reviewed literature detailing the likelihood and statistics of different types of space weather phenomena. These phenomena all typically exhibit "power-law" behavior in their severity. The literature on documented impacts is not as extensive, with many case studies, but few statistical studies. The literature on the economic impacts of space weather is rather sparse and not as well developed when compared to the other sections, most probably due to the somewhat limited data that are available from end-users. The major risk is attached to power distribution systems and there is disagreement as to the severity of the technological footprint. This strongly controls the economic impact. Consequently, urgent work is required to better quantify the risk of future space weather events.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/risa.12765

The Economic Impact of Space Weather: Where Do We Stand?

The recent launch of the equatorial spacecraft of the Double Star mission, TC-1, has provided an unprecedented opportunity to monitor the southern hemisphere dayside magnetopause boundary layer in conjunction with northern hemisphere observations by the quartet of Cluster spacecraft. We present first results of one such situation where, on 6 April 2004, both Cluster and the Double Star TC-1 spacecraft were on outbound transits through the dawnside magnetosphere. The observations are consistent with ongoing reconnection on the dayside magnetopause, resulting in a series of flux transfer events (FTEs) seen both at Cluster and TC-1, which appear to lie north and south of the reconnection line, respectively. In fact, the observed polarity and motion of each FTE signature advocates the existence of an active reconnection region consistently located between the positions of Cluster and TC-1, with Cluster observing northward moving FTEs with +/- polarity, whereas TC-1 sees -/+ polarity FTEs. This assertion is further supported by the application of a model designed to track flux tube motion for the prevailing interplanetary conditions. The results from this model show, in addition, that the low-latitude FTE dynamics are sensitive to changes in convected upstream conditions. In particular, changing the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) clock angle in the model suggests that TC-1 should miss the resulting FTEs more often than Cluster and this is borne out by the observations.

/pdf/coordinated-cluster-double-star-observations-of-dayside-4iee58vgpn.pdf

Coordinated Cluster/Double star observations of dayside reconnection signatures

[1] We present simultaneous observations of flux transfer events (FTEs) made by the THEMIS and Cluster spacecraft on 3 May 2007, along with supporting observations of fast flows in the dayside ionosphere observed by the SuperDARN radar network. The THEMIS spacecraft were in a string-of-pearls formation approximately 20,000 km long and crossed the postnoon magnetopause at low latitudes between 1200 UT (TH-C) and 1430 UT (TH-E). The Cluster spacecraft were situated in the magnetosheath at high latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere, approaching the magnetopause which was crossed at about 1600 UT. THEMIS observed “standard” polarity FTE signatures between 1100 and 1500 UT, while Cluster observed “reverse” polarity signatures at the same time. The two sets of signatures are consistent with being generated at the same small region of a subsolar reconnection line. Between 1100 and 1230 UT, the Double Star TC-1 satellite was near the magnetopause closer to local noon but still ∼7 RE from the subsolar point. TC-1 only observed a single FTE, suggesting that the variability of the reconnection rate differed between these two locations on the X line. Fast poleward ionospheric flows were observed in the noon and prenoon sector, at similar magnetic local times to the footprints of both Cluster and THEMIS, after 1200 UT. The long string formation of the THEMIS constellation allows the motion of the FTE structures to be tracked, and the acceleration is found to be small but consistent with a model prediction.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2009JA014310

Simultaneous observations of flux transfer events by THEMIS, Cluster, Double Star, and SuperDARN: Acceleration of FTEs

. In spring 2004 Double Star TC-1 measured a number of reconnection signatures at the dayside low-latitude magnetopause (MP) when there was a notable B y component in the magnetosheath. In a number of events we can show that reconnection was operating nearby TC-1 in the subsolar MP region. In this paper we describe three representative events: (a) event on 21 March 2004 in which the reconnection site can be remotely monitored, the spacecraft was passing by the X-line; (b) event on 12 March 2004 in which TC-1 observed the magnetospheric part of the quadrupolar field, together with a consistent flow reversal; (c) event on 26 March 2004 which occurred for northward IMF, TC-1 observed a reversal of v y across the equatorial MP. In these events the shear angles across the MP were considerably smaller than 180°; a noticeable guide field was present. These observations are consistent with near equatorial component merging, suggesting that component reconnection preferably occurs at the dayside low-latitude MP. There is evidence that when a pronounced magnetic shear across the MP exists in the B y component, reconnection may operate at the dayside low-latitude MP for northward IMF B z .

/pdf/double-star-tc-1-observations-of-component-reconnection-at-spqxdi9z9j.pdf

Double Star TC-1 observations of component reconnection at the dayside magnetopause: a preliminary study

Fifty-three substorms measured by Double Star/TC-1 in the near-Earth magnetotail from July to October, 2004 are studied. The main features of these events are: ( a) Magnetic flux pileup characterized by continuous enhancement of B-z is observed, which starts almost simultaneously with aurora breakup within 1 - 3 minutes, indicating that substorm onset is in close relation to flux pileup. ( b) Sudden plasma sheet expansion with sharp increases in ion temperature and density is seen in all events, which occurs typically similar to 11 minutes after the beginning of pileup. The plasma sheet expansion is shown to be in close relation with the primary substorm dipolarization and, hence, can be referred to as 'dipolarization-associated expansion'. ( c) Evidence indicates that the substorm current wedge first forms earthward of TC-1 position and, hence, inward of the flow braking region, and then propagates tailward with an expansion in the Z-direction. Possible implications of these observations are briefly discussed.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2006GL028326

TC-1 observations of flux pileup and dipolarization-associated expansion in the near-Earth magnetotail during substorms

The Double Star Project is a collaboration between Chinese and European space agencies, in which two Chinese magnetospheric research spacecraft, carrying Chinese and European instruments, have been launched into equatorial (on 29 December 2003) and polar (on 25 July 2004) orbits designed to enable complementary studies with the Cluster spacecraft. The two Double Star spacecraft TC-1 and TC-2 each carry a Double Star Plasma Electron and Current Experiment (PEACE) instrument. These two instruments were based on Cluster Flight Spare equipment, but differ from Cluster instruments in two important respects. Firstly, a Double Star PEACE instrument has only a single sensor, which must be operated in a manner not originally envisaged in the Cluster context in order to sample the full range of energies. Secondly, the DPU hardware was modified and major changes of onboard software were implemented, most notably a completely different approach to data compression has been adopted for Double Star, which allows high resolution 3-dimensional distributions to be transmitted almost every spin, a significant improvement over Cluster. This paper describes these instruments, and includes examples of data collected in various magnetospheric regions encountered by the spacecraft which have been chosen to illustrate the power of combined Double Star and Cluster measurements.

/pdf/the-double-star-plasma-electron-and-current-experiment-441jc04icw.pdf

The Double Star Plasma Electron and Current Experiment

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The Double Star Plasma Electron and Current Experiment