The demand for wearable technologies has grown tremendously in recent years. Wearable antennas are used for various applications, in many cases within the context of wireless body area networks (WBAN). In WBAN, the presence of the human body poses a significant challenge to the wearable antennas. Specifically, such requirements are required to be considered on a priority basis in the wearable antennas, such as structural deformation, precision, and accuracy in fabrication methods and their size. Various researchers are active in this field and, accordingly, some significant progress has been achieved recently. This article attempts to critically review the wearable antennas especially in light of new materials and fabrication methods, and novel designs, such as miniaturized button antennas and miniaturized single and multi-band antennas, and their unique smart applications in WBAN. Finally, the conclusion has been drawn with respect to some future directions.

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-666X/11/10/888/pdf

Recent Advances of Wearable Antennas in Materials, Fabrication Methods, Designs, and Their Applications: State-of-the-Art

Reliability and washability are major hurdles facing the e-textile industry nowadays. The main fear behind the product’s rejection is the inability to ensure its projected life span. The durability of e-textiles is based on an approximate lifetime of both the electronics and textiles integrated into the product. A detailed analysis of the wash process and the possibility of predicting product behavior are key factors for new standards implementation. This manuscript is focused on the washability issues of different types of woven, knitted, and embroidered, textile-based ECG electrodes. These electrodes are used without the addition of any ionic gel to the skin to reduce impedance. They were subjected to up to 50 wash cycles with two different types of wash processes, and changes in surface resistance, as well as the quality of ECG waves, were observed To investigate the wash damages in detail, the proposed mechanical (Martindale and Pilling box) and chemical test methods were investigated. The electrodes which increased resistance after washing showed the same trend in the proposed test methods. Copper-based electrodes suffered the most severe damage and increased resistance, as was also visible in an SEM analysis. These proposed test methods can be used to predict robustness behavior without washing.

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/5/1272/pdf

Understanding the Washing Damage to Textile ECG Dry Skin Electrodes, Embroidered and Fabric-Based; set up of Equivalent Laboratory Tests.

Requirements for the miniaturization of electronics are constantly increasing as more and more functions are aimed to be integrated into a single device. At the same time, there are strong demands for low‐cost manufacturing, environmental compatibility, rapid prototyping, and small‐scale productions due to fierce competition, policies, rapid technical progress, and short innovation times. Altogether, those challenges cannot be sufficiently addressed by simply using either printed or silicon electronics. Instead, the synergies from combining those two technologies into so‐called hybrid electronics create novel opportunities for advanced capabilities and new areas of applications. In the first part of this review, printing and patterning technologies are presented with potential compatibility with conventional electronics manufacturing techniques. They can be utilized for the fabrication of highly complex structures. Nonetheless, up‐scalability, integration, and adaptation for industrial fabrication remain challenging due to technically limiting factors. Consequently, a special focus is placed on the up‐scalability, availability of commercial printing, and manufacturing machines, as well as processing challenges for high‐volume industrial applications. The second part of this review further provides an overview of exciting and innovative application possibilities of printed electronics, emphasizing sensor applications, as well as additively manufactured integrated circuits.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/adsr.202200073

Printed Electronics Technologies for Additive Manufacturing of Hybrid Electronic Sensor Systems

The sensing/adapting/responding, multifunctionality, low energy, small size and weight, ease of forming, and low-cost attributes of SMART textiles and their multidisciplinary scope offer numerous end uses in medical, sports and fitness, military, fashion, automotive, aerospace, built environment, and energy industries. The research and development for these new and high-value materials crosses scientific boundaries, redefines material science design and engineering, and enhances quality of life and our environment. “Novel SMART Textiles” is a focused special issue that reports the latest research of this field and facilitates dissemination, networking, discussion, and debate.

Novel Smart Textiles.

Improvement of wettability of Te-modified lead-free glass frit and its effect to front side silver paste in crystalline silicon solar cells

Low-temperature die-attaching pastes for wearable electronics are the key components to realize any type of device where components are additively manufactured by pick and place techniques. In this paper, the authors describe a simple method to realize stretchable, bendable, die-attaching pastes based on silver flakes to directly mount resistors and LEDs onto textiles. This paste can be directly applied onto contact pads placed on textiles by means of screen and stencil printing and post-processed at low temperatures to achieve the desired electrical and mechanical properties below 60 °C without sintering. Low curing temperatures lead to lower power consumption, which makes this paste ecological friendly.

Washable, Low-Temperature Cured Joints for Textile-Based Electronics

Stretchable electronics can be realized using different manufacturing methods and hybrids thereof. An example of the latter is the combination of stretchable circuit boards with screen-printing, which will be discussed in this work. The hybrid stretchable electronics structures are based on photolithographically structured and rigid copper islands and screen-printed silver ink interconnections. This enables the assembly of components with a high number of contacts onto the copper islands and deformable silver ink lines between islands. The transition area between islands and lines is critical due to local stress concentration. The effect and potential mitigations were studied by measuring the electrical resistance of test interconnections under mechanical loading. The first set of samples was elongated up to 30% in tensile tests. The second set of samples was elongated 10%, 20%, and 30% in cyclic tests up to 10 000 cycles. After the tests, extensive failure analysis, e.g. scanning electron microscope, and finite element analysis were conducted. In tensile tests at maximum load, the interconnections either snap apart or their resistance increases by 640% in the transition area. Adding protective structures around the transition area, the resistance increase can be reduced to 12%. Stress concentration in the transition area can be controlled with the layout of the structures, as shown in the cyclic tests. Depending on a layout, the structures protect interconnections in the transition area (resistance <4 Ω at 10% and 20% throughout 10 000 cycles, and up to 5000 cycles at 30% elongation), or with particular designs, cause fatal damage of the circuitry and fail early. The identified failure mechanism is typically fatigue damage caused by the repeated bending of the protective structure. The observed resistance increase at the interface was closely related to the crack propagation phase in the protective structures.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2058-8585/acda46/pdf

Mechanical properties of structured copper and printed silver hybrid stretchable electronic systems

Scalable additive manufacturing of printed electronics is a growing field accompanied by increasing demands for reliable and integrable functional flexible printed electronic devices. Herein, a novel type of electrically conducting silver‐based pastes for additive manufacturing is demonstrated. These pastes are designed for stencil‐ and screen‐printing and can be post‐processed at very low temperatures, at ambient. Furthermore, printed lines made with the pastes exhibit an electrical sheet resistance below 60 mΩ sq−1 even after room temperature and only 25 mΩ sq−1 after two minutes of curing at 90 °C.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/adem.202101752

Low‐Temperature Processible Highly Conducting Pastes for Printed Electronics Applications

Towards Industrialized E-Textile Assembly: Low Temperature Optimization of Textile-Electronic NCA Bonding

In the last decade, interest in stretchable electronic systems that can be bent or shaped three-dimensionally has increased. The application of these systems is that they differentiate between two states and derive there from the requirements for the materials used: once formed, but static or permanently flexible. For this purpose, new materials that exceed the limited mechanical properties of thin metal layers as the typical printed circuit board conductor materials have recently gained the interest of research. In this work, novel electrically conductive textiles were used as conductor materials for stretchable circuit boards. Three different fabrics (woven, knitted and nonwoven) made of silver-plated polyamide fibers were investigated for their mechanical and electrical behavior under quasi-static and cyclic mechanical loads with simultaneous monitoring of the electrical resistance. Thereto, the electrically conductive textiles were embedded into a thermoplastic polyurethane dielectric matrix and structured by laser cutting into stretchable conductors. Based on the characterization of the mechanical and electrical material behavior, a life expectancy was derived. The results are compared with previously investigated stretchable circuit boards based on thermoplastic elastomer and meander-shaped conductor tracks made of copper foils. The microstructural changes in the material caused by the applied mechanical loads were analyzed and are discussed in detail to provide a deep understanding of failure mechanisms.

/pdf/investigation-of-the-mechanical-and-electrical-properties-of-6anon7a1pu.pdf

Investigation of the Mechanical and Electrical Properties of Elastic Textile/Polymer Composites for Stretchable Electronics at Quasi-Static or Cyclic Mechanical Loads.

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