The greatest threat to the protected Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in Central Europe is human-induced mortality. As the availability of lynx prey often peaks in human-modified areas, lynx have to balance successful prey hunting with the risk of encounters with humans. We hypothesized that lynx minimize this risk by adjusting habitat choices to the phases of the day and over seasons. We predicted that (1) due to avoidance of human-dominated areas during daytime, lynx range use is higher at nighttime, that (2) prey availability drives lynx habitat selection at night, whereas high cover, terrain inaccessibility, and distance to human infrastructure drive habitat selection during the day, and that (3) habitat selection also differs between seasons, with altitude being a dominant factor in winter. To test these hypotheses, we analyzed telemetry data (GPS, VHF) of 10 lynx in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem (Germany, Czech Republic) between 2005 and 2013 using generalized additive mixed models and considering various predictor variables. Night ranges exceeded day ranges by more than 10%. At night, lynx selected open habitats, such as meadows, which are associated with high ungulate abundance. By contrast, during the day, lynx selected habitats offering dense understorey cover and rugged terrain away from human infrastructure. In summer, land-cover type greatly shaped lynx habitats, whereas in winter, lynx selected lower altitudes. We concluded that open habitats need to be considered for more realistic habitat models and contribute to future management and conservation (habitat suitability, carrying capacity) of Eurasian lynx in Central Europe.

https://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ece3.3204

Habitat selection by Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is primarily driven by avoidance of human activity during day and prey availability during night.

Humans, as super predators, can have strong effects on wildlife behaviour, including profound modifications of diel activity patterns. Subsequent to the return of large carnivores to human‐modified ecosystems, many prey species have adjusted their spatial behaviour to the contrasting landscapes of fear generated by both their natural predators and anthropogenic pressures. The effects of predation risk on temporal shifts in diel activity of prey, however, remain largely unexplored in human‐dominated landscapes.
We investigated the influence of the density of lynx Lynx lynx, a nocturnal predator, on the diel activity patterns of their main prey, the roe deer Capreolus capreolus, across a gradient of human disturbance and hunting at the European scale.
Based on 11 million activity records from 431 individually GPS‐monitored roe deer in 12 populations within the EURODEER network (http://eurodeer.org), we investigated how lynx predation risk in combination with both lethal and non‐lethal human activities affected the diurnality of deer.
We demonstrated marked plasticity in roe deer diel activity patterns in response to spatio‐temporal variations in risk, mostly due to human activities. In particular, roe deer decreased their level of diurnality by a factor of 1.37 when the background level of general human disturbance was high. Hunting exacerbated this effect, as during the hunting season deer switched most of their activity to night‐time and, to a lesser extent, to dawn, although this pattern varied noticeably in relation to lynx density. Indeed, in the presence of lynx, their main natural predator, roe deer were relatively more diurnal. Overall, our results revealed a strong influence of human activities and the presence of lynx on diel shifts in roe deer activity.
In the context of the recovery of large carnivores across Europe, we provide important insights about the effects of predators on the behavioural responses of their prey in human‐dominated ecosystems. Modifications in the temporal partitioning of ungulate activity as a response to human activities may facilitate human–wildlife coexistence, but likely also have knock‐on effects for predator–prey interactions, with cascading effects on ecosystem functioning.

Fear of the dark? Contrasting impacts of humans versus lynx on diel activity of roe deer across Europe.

Illegal hunting as a major driver of the source-sink dynamics of a reintroduced lynx population in Central Europe

Habitat metrics based on multi-temporal Landsat imagery for mapping large mammal habitat

Over the past ~40 years, several attempts were made to reintroduce Eurasian lynx to suitable habitat within their former distribution range in Western Europe. In general, limited numbers of individuals have been released to establish new populations. To evaluate the effects of reintroductions on the genetic status of lynx populations we used 12 microsatellite loci to study lynx populations in the Bohemian–Bavarian and Vosges–Palatinian forests. Compared with autochthonous lynx populations, these two reintroduced populations displayed reduced genetic diversity, particularly the Vosges–Palatinian population. Our genetic data provide further evidence to support the status of ‘endangered’ and ‘critically endangered’ for the Bohemian–Bavarian and Vosges–Palatinian populations, respectively. Regarding conservation management, we highlight the need to limit poaching, and advocate additional translocations to bolster genetic variability.

/pdf/the-effect-of-reintroductions-on-the-genetic-variability-in-19ui7zemfz.pdf

The effect of reintroductions on the genetic variability in Eurasian lynx populations: the cases of Bohemian–Bavarian and Vosges–Palatinian populations

A population of Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx was established by reintroductions in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem in the 1970s and 1980s. The most recent information on the population status indicates that the distribution has stagnated since the late 1990s, for unknown reasons. We assessed the availability of suitable habitat along the Austrian–German–Czech border, and hypothesized that the Bohemian–Bavarian lynx population is not in equilibrium with habitat suitability. Based on global positioning system data from 10 radio-collared lynx, we used a maximum entropy approach to model suitable habitat. Variables reflecting anthropogenic influence contributed most to the model and were negatively associated with the occurrence of lynx. We evaluated the model prediction using independent records of lynx from monitoring in Bavaria, Germany. Using our habitat approach we estimated the area of potential habitat, based on a mean annual home range of 445 km2 for males and 122 km2 for females. Our results indicated there were 12,415 km2 of suitable habitat, distributed among 13 patches, for a potential population of c. 142 (93–160) resident lynx. We assessed connectivity via least-cost paths and found that all suitable patches could be reached by the lynx. A comparison with the current distribution of lynx, however, confirms that a significant proportion of suitable habitat is not occupied, which indicates that the distribution is limited by factors other than habitat, with illegal killing being the most likely cause. Our study provides crucial information for the development of a conservation strategy and regional planning for the Bohemian–Bavarian lynx population.

/pdf/habitat-availability-is-not-limiting-the-distribution-of-the-4rx8u15lf9.pdf

Habitat availability is not limiting the distribution of the Bohemian–Bavarian lynx Lynx lynx population

Genetic variability and size estimates of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) population in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem

Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx L. are recolonizing parts of their former range in Europe. Not only are lynx strictly protected as a species, but also their habitat and in particular their resting sites are protected. As the known characteristics of lynx resting sites are restricted to vegetation structure, it is difficult to take resting sites into account in planning processes. Here, we show the importance of rock formations for potential resting sites selection and analyzed the frequencies at which GPS-collared lynx returned to potential resting sites in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem at the border between the Czech Republic and Germany. Lynx showed a strong selection for proximity of rocks for resting site selection, and the distance of potential resting sites to rocks was an important predictor for determining whether lynx return to the resting site or not. Furthermore, the frequency of returns to the resting site was positively influenced by the distance to roads and geomorphology. Our findings highlight the importance of rock formations as resting sites for lynx, which can help with the implementation of concrete protection measures.

https://bioone.org/journals/wildlife-biology/volume-2019/issue-1/wlb.00489/Rocks-rock--the-importance-of-rock-formations-as-resting/10.2981/wlb.00489.pdf

Rocks rock: the importance of rock formations as resting sites of the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx

1Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 1176, CZ-16521 Prague, Czech Republic 2Department of Research and Nature Protection, Šumava National Park Administration, Sušická 399, CZ-34192 Kašperské Hory, Czech Republic 3Department for Conservation and Research, Bavarian Forest National Park, Freyunger Str.2, D-94481 Grafenau, Germany 4Department of Wildlife Sciences, University of Göttingen, Büsgenweg 3, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany 5Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Viničná 7, CZ-12844 Prague 2, Czech Republic 6Chair of Wildlife Ecology and Management, Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, University of Freiburg, Tennenbacher Straße 4, D-79106 Freiburg, Germany

http://www.italian-journal-of-mammalogy.it/pdf-96289-34985?filename=Recreational activities.pdf

Recreational activities affect resting site selection and foraging time of Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx )

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Papers

Habitat availability is not limiting the distribution of the Bohemian–Bavarian lynx Lynx lynx population

Genetic variability and size estimates of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) population in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem

Rocks rock: the importance of rock formations as resting sites of the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx

Recreational activities affect resting site selection and foraging time of Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx )