Soil salinization is an essential environmental stressor, threatening agricultural yield and ecological security worldwide. Saline soils accumulate excessive soluble salts which are detrimental to most plants by limiting plant growth and productivity. It is of great necessity for plants to efficiently deal with the adverse effects caused by salt stress for survival and successful reproduction. Multiple determinants of salt tolerance have been identified in plants, and the cellular and physiological mechanisms of plant salt response and adaption have been intensely characterized. Plants respond to salt stress signals and rapidly initiate signaling pathways to re-establish cellular homeostasis with adjusted growth and cellular metabolism. This review summarizes the advances in salt stress perception, signaling, and response in plants. A better understanding of plant salt resistance will contribute to improving crop performance under saline conditions using multiple engineering approaches. The rhizosphere microbiome-mediated plant salt tolerance as well as chemical priming for enhanced plant salt resistance are also discussed in this review. 

Insights into plant salt stress signaling and tolerance.

Salt stress is one of the significant environmental stressors that severely affects plant growth and development. Plant responses to salt stress involve a series of biological mechanisms, including osmoregulation, redox and ionic homeostasis regulation, as well as hormone or light signaling-mediated growth adjustment, which are regulated by different functional components. Unraveling these adaptive mechanisms and identifying the critical genes involved in salt response and adaption are crucial for developing salt-tolerant cultivars. This review summarizes the current research progress in the regulatory networks for plant salt tolerance, highlighting the mechanisms of salt stress perception, signaling, and tolerance response. Finally, we also discuss the possible contribution of microbiota and nanobiotechnology to plant salt tolerance.

/pdf/plant-salt-response-perception-signaling-and-tolerance-3kahr899.pdf

Plant salt response: Perception, signaling, and tolerance

Conventional agrochemicals are underutilized due to their large particle sizes, poor foliar retention rates, and difficult translocation in plants, and the development of functional nanodelivery carriers with high adhesion to the plant body surface and efficient uptake and translocation in plants remains challenging. In this study, a nanodelivery system based on a pectin-encapsulated iron-based MOF (TF@Fe-MOF-PT NPs) was constructed to enhance the utilization of thifluzamide (TF) in rice plants by taking advantage of the pectin affinity for plant cell walls. The prepared TF@Fe-MOF-PT NPs exhibited an average particle size of 126.55 nm, a loading capacity of 27.41%, and excellent dual-stimulus responses to reactive oxygen species and pectinase. Foliar washing experiments showed that the TF@Fe-MOF-PT NPs were efficiently adhered to the surfaces of rice leaves and stems. Confocal laser scanning microscopy showed that fluorescently labeled TF@Fe-MOF-PT NPs were bidirectionally delivered through vascular bundles in rice plants. The in vitro bactericidal activity of the TF@Fe-MOF-PT NPs showed better inhibitory activity than that of a TF suspension (TF SC), with an EC50 of 0.021 mg/L. A greenhouse test showed that the TF@Fe-MOF-PT NPs were more effective than TF SC at 7 and 14 d, with control effects of 85.88 and 78.59%, respectively. It also reduced the inhibition of seed stem length and root length by TF SC and promoted seedling growth. These results demonstrated that TF@Fe-MOF-PT NPs can be used as a pesticide nanodelivery system for efficient delivery and intelligent release in plants and applied for sustainable control of pests and diseases.

Pectin-Coated Iron-Based Metal-Organic Framework Nanoparticles for Enhanced Foliar Adhesion and Targeted Delivery of Fungicides.

Abstract Ferroptosis, a newly characterized form of regulated cell death, is induced by excessive accumulation of lipid peroxidation catalyzed by intracellular bioactive iron. Increasing evidence has suggested that ferroptosis is involved in the pathogenesis of several human diseases, including acute liver injury. Targeted inhibition of ferroptosis holds great promise for the clinical treatment of these diseases. Herein, we report a simple and one-pot synthesis of ultrasmall poly(acrylic) acid coated Mn 3 O 4 nanoparticles (PAA@Mn 3 O 4 -NPs, PMO), which perform multiple antioxidant enzyme-mimicking activities and can scavenge broad-spectrum reactive oxygen species. PMO could potently suppress ferroptosis. Mechanistically, after being absorbed mainly through macropinocytosis, PMO are largely enriched in lysosomes, where PMO detoxify ROS, inhibit ferritinophagy-mediated iron mobilization and preserve mTOR activation, which collectively confer the prominent inhibition of ferroptosis. Additionally, PMO injection potently counteracts lipid peroxidation and alleviates acetaminophen- and ischaemia/reperfusion-induced acute liver injury in mice. Collectively, our results reveal that biocompatible PMO act as potent ferroptosis inhibitors through multifaceted mechanisms, which ensures that PMO have great translational potential for the clinical treatment of ferroptosis-related acute liver injury. 

Targeting ferroptosis by poly(acrylic) acid coated Mn3O4 nanoparticles alleviates acute liver injury

Drought stress threatens global food security and requires creative agricultural solutions. Recently, phyto-synthesized nanoparticles NPs have garnered attention as a way to reduce food crop drought. This extensive research examines how phyto-synthesized NPs improve crop growth and biochemistry in drought-stressed situations. The review begins with an introduction highlighting the urgency of addressing the agricultural challenges posed by drought. It also highlights the significance of nanoparticles synthesized from photosynthesis in this context. Its purpose is to underscore the importance of sustainable farming practices. This approach is contrasted with conventional methods, elucidating the ecological and economic advantages of phyto-synthesized NPs. This review discusses phyto-synthesized nanoparticles, including titanium dioxide, iron oxide, gold, silver, and copper. In addition, we review their ability to enhance crop growth and stress resistance. The primary focus is to elucidate the effects of phyto-synthesized NPs on plant development under drought stress. Noteworthy outcomes encompass improvements in seed germination, seedling growth, water absorption, photosynthesis, chlorophyll content, the activation of antioxidant defense mechanisms, and the modulation of hormonal responses. These results underscore the potential of phyto-synthesized NPs as agents for enhancing growth and mitigating stress. The review assesses the risks and challenges of using phyto-synthesized NPs in agriculture. Considerations include non-target organisms, soil, and environmental impacts. Further research is needed to determine the long-term effects, dangers, and benefits of phyto-synthesized NPs. Nanoparticles offer a targeted and sustainable approach for improving plant drought tolerance, outpacing traditional methods in ethics and ecological balance. Their mechanisms range from nutrient delivery to molecular regulation. However, the long-term environmental impact remains understudied. This review is critical for identifying research gaps and advancing sustainable agricultural practices amid global water scarcity.

Current Knowledge, Research Progress, and Future Prospects of Phyto-Synthesized Nanoparticles Interactions with Food Crops under Induced Drought Stress

Abstract Salinity is a global issue limiting efficient agricultural production. Nanobiotechnology has been emerged as an effective approach to improve plant salt tolerance. However, little known is about the shared mechanisms between different nanomaterials-enabled plant salt tolerance. In this study, we found that both PNC [polyacrylic acid coated nanoceria (CeO 2 nanoparticles)] and PMO (polyacrylic acid coated Mn 3 O 4 nanoparticles) nanozymes improved rapeseed salt tolerance. PNC and PMO treated rapeseed plants showed significantly fresh weight, dry weight, higher chlorophyll content, Fv/Fm, and carbon assimilation rate than control plants under salt stress. Results from confocal imaging with reactive oxygen species (ROS) fluorescent dye and histochemical staining experiments showed that the ROS over-accumulation level in PNC and PMO treated rapeseed was significantly lower than control plants under salt stress. Confocal imaging results with K + fluorescent dye showed that significantly higher cytosolic and vacuolar K + signals were observed in PNC and PMO treated rapeseed than control plants under salt stress. This is further confirmed by leaf K + content data. Furthermore, we found that PNC and PMO treated rapeseed showed significantly lower cytosolic Na + signals than control plants under salt stress. While, compared with significantly higher vacuolar Na + signals in PNC treated plants, PMO treated rapeseed showed significantly lower vacuolar Na + signals than control plants under salt stress. These results are further supported by qPCR results of genes of Na + and K + transport. Overall, our results suggest that besides maintaining ROS homeostasis, improvement of leaf K + retention could be a shared mechanism in nano-improved plant salt tolerance. 

/pdf/improvement-of-leaf-k-retention-is-a-shared-mechanism-behind-13pz9di3.pdf

Improvement of leaf K^+ retention is a shared mechanism behind CeO_2 and Mn_3O_4 nanoparticles improved rapeseed salt tolerance

Cotton is an important fibre and oil crop across the globe. Salinity is a global issue limiting efficient crop production. Especially, salinity is a big threat for cotton production in China, since the majority of cotton are planted in Xinjiang province which has soil salinization issue. Nowadays, more than 80% cotton in China was harvested from Xinjiang province which is a semi-arid area with severe salinity issue (Feng et al., 2017). Many approaches were tried to improve cotton production in saline land, including proper irrigation, breeding salt-tolerant cotton species and flushing saline soil with fresh water (Sara Francisco Costa et al., 2018). However, all these approaches have its own limitations. For example, breeding programmes take long time and flushing saline soil with fresh water is not affordable in semi-arid area. New approach such as nanobiotechnology could give alternative solutions to improve plant salt tolerance. To facilitate the adoption of nanobiotechnology in agriculture, learning from nature are encouraged. For example, ROS overaccumulation is a secondary stress in crop plants under salinity and results in oxidative damage on macro-molecules such as DNA, protein and lipids in plants (Mittler, 2017). Increasing ROS scavenging ability has been proved as an effective way to improve plant salt tolerance (Wu et al., 2017). Thus, the use of nanomaterials with good ROS scavenging ability might help to improve plant salt tolerance. Indeed, nano-improved plant salt tolerance has been reported in many plant species, including rice, rapeseed, Arabidopsis and cotton (Wu and Li, 2022). While, to date, the nanoparticles used to improve cotton salt tolerance are nanoceria (An et al., 2020) and nano-zinc (Hussein and AbouBaker, 2018). The former one has catalytic ROS scavenging ability while the safety concern about cerium is always an issue. The latter one is formed with essential micronutrients for plants but is lacking of catalytic ROS scavenging ability. Thus, designing nanomaterials that have the advantages of being essential nutrients for plants and good ROS scavenging ability could be a good strategy to improve plant salt tolerance. Manganese (Mn) is an essential micronutrient for plants and plays important role in plant growth. Mn is known as a critical component of the photosynthetic system and directly participates in the hydrolysis process (Barber, 2017). Also, Mn is important for the activities of various enzymes (Emsley, 2013), for example antioxidant enzyme Mn-SOD (superoxide dismutase) requires Mn as cofactor. Thus, not surprisingly, Mn fertilizers are widely used in agriculture. Thus, Mn-based nanomaterials with good ROS scavenging ability could be a good candidate to improve cotton salt tolerance. In this work, we designed and synthesized a PAA (polyacrylic acid) coated Mn3O4 nanoparticles (PAA@Mn3O4 nanoparticles, PMO). HR-TEM (high resolution-transmission electron microscopy) images showed that PMO are well dispersed and the TEM size of PMO is 5.6 1.1 nm (Figure 1a). The hydrodynamic diameter and zeta potential of PMO are 9.2 1.2 nm and 38.3 0.1 mV (Figure 1b). The size and charge are good to ensure its delivery efficiency in plants (Wong et al., 2016) (Wu et al., 2017). XRD (X-ray diffraction) analysis further confirmed that PMO are Mn3O4 nanoparticles (Figure 1c). XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) results shows that the ratio of Mn/Mn/Mn in PMO is 0.4:1:1.9 (Figure 1d). In vitro ROS scavenging test shows that the ability to scavenge OH, O2 • , and H2O2 is 95.1%, 30.0%, and 6.7% for PMO (Figure 1e). Similar to our previous work (Liu et al., 2021), PMO was foliar delivered (with 0.05% Silwet L-77) to cotton plants (two true leaf stage). Confocal imaging results showed that compared with no nanoparticle control, under salt stress, PMO-treated cotton plants showed significant lower fluorescent intensity of DCF (20,70-dichlorofluorescein) dye (indicating H2O2) (1.9 0.2 vs 12.7 3.4), DHE (dihydroethidium) dye (indicating O2 ) (1.8 0.1 vs 1.3 0.1) and HPF (hydroxyphenyl fluorescein) dye (indicating OH) (3.8 0.9 vs 9.2 1.1) (Figure 1f,g). These results further confirmed that PMO has good ROS scavenging ability to help to maintain ROS homeostasis in cotton plants. It suggests that by addressing the nature of essential micronutrients and good ROS scavenging ability, PMO can be a good candidate to improve cotton salt tolerance. To investigate the role of PMO in improving cotton salt tolerance, we treated cottonplants (second true leaf stage)with foliar delivered 200 mg/L PMO and then subjected it to salinity (200 mM NaCl) for 5 days. Cotton plants treated with MnCl2 (200 mg/L) and 0.05% Silwet L-77 were used as positive control and negative control, respectively. After 5 days’ salt stress, compared with control plants, obvious improvement of phenotypic performance was observed in cotton plants treated with PMO (Figure 1h). This is in accordance with freshweight data. Under salt stress, PMO-treated cotton plants showed significant higher fresh weight (2.9 0.1 g) than control

Use of Mn3O4 nanozyme to improve cotton salt tolerance

In this work, we systematically investigated how cell wall and cell wall components affect the delivery of charged carbon quantum dots (CDs, from -34 to +41 mV) to leaf cells of cucumber and Arabidopsis plants. Four different types of leaf cells in cucumber and Arabidopsis were used, i.e., protoplasts (without cell wall), isolated individual cells (cell wall hydrolyzed with pectinase), regenerated individual cells (cell wall regenerated from protoplast), and intact leaf cells (intact cell wall, in planta). Leaf cells were incubated with charged CDs (0.5 mg/mL) for 2 h. Confocal imaging results showed that protoplasts, regenerated individual cells, and leaf cells showed favored uptake of the negatively charged CDs (-34 mV) compared to the PEI (polyethylenimine) coated and positively charged carbon dots [PEI600-CDs (17 mV) and PEI10K-CDs (41 mV)], while in isolated individual cells, the trend is opposite. The results of the content of the cell wall components showed that no significant changes in the total cell wall content were found between isolated individual cells and regenerated individual cells (1.28 vs 1.11 mg/106 cells), while regenerated individual cells showed significant higher pectin content [water-soluble pectin (0.13 vs 0.06 mg/106 cells, P < 0.01), chelator-soluble pectin (0.04 vs 0.01 mg/106 cells, P < 0.01), and alkaline pectin (0.02 vs 0.01 mg/106 cells, P < 0.01)] and significant lower cellulose content (0.13 vs 0.32 mg/106 cells, P < 0.01) than the isolated individual cells. No difference of the hemicellulose content was found between isolated individual cells and regenerated individual cells (0.20 vs 0.21 mg/106 cells). Our results suggest that compared with cellulose and hemicellulose in the cell wall, the pectin is a more important factor referring to the favored uptake of negatively charged carbon dots in leaf cells. Overall, this work provides a method to study the role of cell wall components in the uptake of nanoparticles in plant cells and also points out the importance of understanding the interactions between cell barriers and nanoparticles to design nanoparticles for agricultural use.

Cell Wall Pectin Content Refers to Favored Delivery of Negatively Charged Carbon Dots in Leaf Cells.

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Improvement of leaf K^+ retention is a shared mechanism behind CeO_2 and Mn_3O_4 nanoparticles improved rapeseed salt tolerance

Use of Mn3O4 nanozyme to improve cotton salt tolerance

Cell Wall Pectin Content Refers to Favored Delivery of Negatively Charged Carbon Dots in Leaf Cells.