This review describes a multidimensional treatment of molecular recognition phenomena involving aromatic rings in chemical and biological systems. It summarizes new results reported since the appearance of an earlier review in 2003 in host-guest chemistry, biological affinity assays and biostructural analysis, data base mining in the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD) and the Protein Data Bank (PDB), and advanced computational studies. Topics addressed are arene-arene, perfluoroarene-arene, S⋅⋅⋅aromatic, cation-π, and anion-π interactions, as well as hydrogen bonding to π systems. The generated knowledge benefits, in particular, structure-based hit-to-lead development and lead optimization both in the pharmaceutical and in the crop protection industry. It equally facilitates the development of new advanced materials and supramolecular systems, and should inspire further utilization of interactions with aromatic rings to control the stereochemical outcome of synthetic transformations.

Aromatic rings in chemical and biological recognition: energetics and structures.

Cation-π interaction: its role and relevance in chemistry, biology, and material science.

New insights about HERG blockade obtained from protein modeling, potential energy mapping, and docking studies

This is a sequel to the previous Perspective “The CH–π hydrogen bond in chemistry. Conformation, supramolecules, optical resolution and interactions involving carbohydrates”, which featured in a PCCP themed issue on “Weak Hydrogen Bonds – Strong Effects?”: Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2011, 13, 13873–13900. Evidence that weak hydrogen bonds play an enormously important role in chemistry and biochemistry has now accumulated to an extent that the rigid classical concept of hydrogen bonds formulated by Pauling needs to be seriously revised and extended. The concept of a more generalized hydrogen bond definition is indispensable for understanding the folding mechanisms of proteins. The CH–π hydrogen bond, a weak molecular force occurring between a soft acid CH and a soft base π-electron system, among all is one of the most important and plays a functional role in defining the conformation and stability of 3D structures as well as in many molecular recognition events. This concept is also valuable in structure-based drug design efforts. Despite their frequent occurrence in organic molecules and bio-molecules, the importance of CH–π hydrogen bonds is still largely unknown to many chemists and biochemists. Here we present a review that deals with the evidence, nature, characteristics and consequences of the CH–π hydrogen bond in biological macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and polysaccharides). It is hoped that the present Perspective will show the importance of CH–π hydrogen bonds and stimulate interest in the interactions of biological macromolecules, one of the most fascinating fields in bioorganic chemistry. Implication of this concept is enormous and valuable in the scientific community.

CH–π hydrogen bonds in biological macromolecules

In previous work we have shown that the density matrix renormalization group (DMRG) enables near-exact calculations in active spaces much larger than are possible with traditional complete active space algorithms. Here, we implement orbital optimization with the DMRG to further allow the self-consistent improvement of the active orbitals, as is done in the complete active space self-consistent field (CASSCF) method. We use our resulting DMRG-CASSCF method to study the low-lying excited states of the all-trans polyenes up to C_(24)H_(26) as well as β-carotene, correlating with near-exact accuracy the optimized complete π-valence space with up to 24 active electrons and orbitals, and analyze our results in the light of the recent discovery from resonance Raman experiments of new optically dark states in the spectrum.

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Orbital optimization in the density matrix renormalization group, with applications to polyenes and β-carotene

Molecular determinants for ATP-binding in proteins: a data mining and quantum chemical analysis.

Adenosine 5‘-triphosphate (ATP) plays an essential role in all forms of life. Molecular recognition of ATP in ATP-binding proteins is a subject of great importance for understanding enzymatic mechanisms and for drug design. We have carried out a large-scale data mining of the Protein Data Bank (PDB) to analyze molecular determinants for recognition of ATP, in particular, the adenine base, by ATP-binding proteins. A novel distribution pattern of charged residues around the adenine base was discovered:  lysine residues tend to occupy the major groove N7 side of the adenine base, and the arginine residues situate preferentially above or below the adenine bases. Such an arrangement is advantageous because it facilitates multiple modes of intermolecular interactions, that is, cation−π interactions and a hydrogen bond between lysine and adenine, and cation−π and π−π stacking interactions between arginine and adenine. For the two representative Lys···Adenine and Arg···Adenine interactions, intermolecular interac...

Multiple intermolecular interaction modes of positively charged residues with adenine in ATP-binding proteins.

Insight into the Structural Role of Carotenoids in the Photosystem I: A Quantum Chemical Analysis

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Molecular determinants for ATP-binding in proteins: a data mining and quantum chemical analysis.

Multiple intermolecular interaction modes of positively charged residues with adenine in ATP-binding proteins.

Insight into the Structural Role of Carotenoids in the Photosystem I: A Quantum Chemical Analysis