So-called NEW ENGLISHES, distinct forms of English which have emerged in postcolonial settings and countries around the globe, have typically been regarded individually, as unique varieties shaped by idiosyncratic historical conditions and contact settings, and no coherent theory to account for these processes has been developed so far. This article argues that despite all obvious dissimilarities, a fundamentally uniform developmental process, shaped by consistent sociolinguistic and language-contact conditions, has operated in the individual instances of rerooting the English language in another territory. At the heart of this process there are characteristic stages of identity construction by the groups involved, with similar relationships between the parties in migration contact settings (i.e. the indigenous population and immigrant groups, respectively) having resulted in analogous processes of mutual accommodation and, consequently, similar sociolinguistic and structural outcomes. Outlining a basic developmental scenario, I suggest that speech communities typically undergo five consecutive phases in this process - FOUNDATION, EXONORMATIVE STABILIZATION, NATIVIZATION, ENDONORMATIVE STABILIZATION, and DIFFERENTIATION - and I describe the sociolinguistic characteristics of each one. This framework is then applied to case studies of seven different countries (Fiji, Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand) which, I argue, are currently positioned at different points along the developmental cycle.

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The Dynamics of New Englishes: From Identity Construction to Dialect Birth

1. Introduction 2. Charting the territory: postcolonial English as a field of linguistic investigation 3. The evolution of postcolonial English: the dynamic model 4. Linguistic aspects of nativization 5. Countries along the cycle: case studies 6. The cycle in hindsight: the emergence of American English 7. Conclusion.

Postcolonial English: Varieties around the World

Heritage speakers are native speakers of a minority language they learn at home, but due to socio-political pressure from the majority language spoken in their community, their heritage language does not fully develop. In the last decade, the acquisition of heritage languages has become a central focus of study within linguistics and applied linguistics. This work centres on the grammatical development of the heritage language and the language learning trajectory of heritage speakers, synthesizing recent experimental research. The Acquisition of Heritage Languages offers a global perspective, with a wealth of examples from heritage languages around the world. Written in an accessible style, this authoritative and up-to-date text is essential reading for professionals, students, and researchers of all levels working in the fields of sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, education, language policies and language teaching.

The Acquisition of Heritage Languages

This symposium issue focuses on the use of simulations and games to promote language socialization. Laurie Schick’s opening article is based on language socialization theory and includes a discussion of concepts developed in frame analysis. She considers simulations to be powerful socialization tools and discusses the implications for using role-plays and simulations in pedagogical contexts. In her exploration of the advantages of incorporating Internet chat into an international composition class, Emily Hull discusses the pedagogical implications of combining this technology with the BULLYING simulation that appears in this issue. Tânia Saliés and Priscila Starosky explore how the use of games led to the language development of a deaf Brazilian boy. In their cognitive-functional approach, they analyze the results of gaming encounters in terms of the development of the child’s communicative competence. Seongwon Yun examines how bilingual Korean children’s role-play leads to the internalization of social identities and how their metacommunication about play lead to the acquisition of cultural and linguistic knowledge. Mary Theresa Seig discusses the use of a cross-cultural simulation as an effective tool in a training program at a living history museum. She demonstrates how a simulation helped interpreters at the museum to communicate more effectively with visitors. This symposium issue concludes with my BULLYING simulation. Although we have used it in graduate courses in International Composition, one participant suggested (see reference in Schick’s article, this issue) that the BULLYING simulation could be an appropriate exercise for a group of public school teachers participating in an orientation program.

Language socialization

Translanguaging is a new term in bilingual education; it supports a heteroglossic language ideology, which views bilingualism as valuable in its own right. Some translanguaging scholars have questioned the existence of discrete languages, further concluding that multilingualism does not exist. I argue that the political use of language names can and should be distinguished from the social and structural idealizations used to study linguistic diversity, favoring what I call an integrated multilingual model of individual bilingualism, contrasted with the unitary model and dual competence model. I further distinguish grammars from linguistic repertoires, arguing that bilinguals, like monolinguals, have a single linguistic repertoire but a richly diverse mental grammar. I call the viewpoint developed here a multilingual perspective on translanguaging.

A Multilingual Perspective on Translanguaging

Introducing new findings from popular culture, the globalised new economy and computer-mediated communication, this is a fascinating study of contact between languages in modern societies. Ansaldo and Lim bring together research on multilingualism, code-switching, language endangerment, and globalisation, into a comprehensive overview of world Englishes and creoles. Illustrated with a wide range of original examples from typologically diverse languages, including Sinitic, Autronesian, Dravidian and other non-Indo-European varieties, the book focuses on structural analyses of Asian ecologies and their relevance for current theories of contact phenomena. Full of new insights, it is essential reading for students and researchers across linguistics, culture and communication.

Languages in Contact

1. Acknowledgements 2. Tables & Figures 3. 1. English in Singapore and Singapore English: Background and methodology (by Lim, Lisa) 4. 2. Souding Singaporean (by Lim, Lisa) 5. 3. Nouns and noun phrases (by Wee, Lionel) 6. 4. The verbal cluster (by Fong, Vivienne) 7. 5. Reduplication and discourse particles (by Wee, Lionel) 8. 6.The evolution of Singapore English: Finding the matrix (by Ansaldo, Umberto) 9. References 10. Name Index 11. Subject Index

Singapore English : a grammatical description

This paper presents a comprehensive account of the discourse particles in colloquial Singapore English (SE), considering their etymology in the light of both structure and sociohistory. While the object of many studies, mostly focusing on their meaning and use, and generally recognised as coming from Southern Chinese languages, the establishment of the origins and evolution of SE particles has not before been attempted. The thrust of this paper is thus twofold: (i) it outlines the linguistic ecology of Singapore over the decades and proposes a framework involving three ages in which different languages are recognised as dominant, influencing the feature pool in the evolution of SE, and (ii) it identifies the most likely sources of SE particles, through (a) a systematic comparison of the forms and functions of SE particles with particles from the substrates, including, in particular, their original tone, and (b) recourse to sociohistorical facts to support the linguistic postulation. I suggest that in an early era Bazaar Malay and Hokkien contributed the particles lah, ah and what, and Cantonese in a later age provided lor, hor, leh, meh and ma, inclusive of tone. This argument highlights issues interesting for contact dynamics and new varieties of English.

Mergers and acquisitions: On the ages and origins of Singapore English particles

This book provides a detailed investigation into the state and status of English in Singapore. These are important barometers of how successful this dynamic society is in its attempt to stay relevant to the world 'outside', even as it insists on portraying itself in terms of a resolutely Asian identity.

English in Singapore: Modernity and Management

English in Singapore and Singapore English: Background and methodology

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