The development of lanthanide-doped non-contact luminescent nanothermometers with accuracy, efficiency and fast diagnostic tools attributed to their versatility, stability and narrow emission band profiles has spurred the replacement of conventional contact thermal probes. The application of lanthanide-doped materials as temperature nanosensors, excited by ultraviolet, visible or near infrared light, and the generation of emissions lying in the biological window regions, I-BW (650 nm-950 nm), II-BW (1000 nm-1350 nm), III-BW (1400 nm-2000 nm) and IV-BW (centered at 2200 nm), are notably growing due to the advantages they present, including reduced phototoxicity and photobleaching, better image contrast and deeper penetration depths into biological tissues. Here, the different mechanisms used in lanthanide ion-doped nanomaterials to sense temperature in these biological windows for biomedical and other applications are summarized, focusing on factors that affect their thermal sensitivity, and consequently their temperature resolution. Comparing the thermometric performance of these nanomaterials in each biological window, we identified the strategies that allow boosting of their sensing properties.

Lanthanide doped luminescence nanothermometers in the biological windows: strategies and applications.

Optically thermometric sensitivities of Er3+/Yb3+ Co-doped hosts with different phonon energy

Luminous tuning in Eu3+/Mn4+ co-doped double perovskite structure by designing the site-occupancy strategy for solid-state lighting and optical temperature sensing

Multipath optical thermometry realized in CaSc2O4: Yb3+/Er3+ with high sensitivity and superior resolution

Most praseodymium-doped red-emitting phosphors need high-temperature synthesis conditions with a reducing atmosphere. The niobate matrix selected in this work provides a sufficient electron-rich-site environment for praseodymium through charge migration, and praseodymium can be self-reduced in air atmosphere, which is safe and environmentally friendly. By building the [NbO6] group → Pr3+ energy transfer and finely modifying the doping concentration of Pr3+ ions, we constructed a dual-luminescence-system of the [NbO6] group and Pr3+. Thereby, optical temperature measurement based on fluorescence intensity ratio (FIR) technology of Pr3+ ions and [NbO6] groups was carried out using non-thermal coupling pairs, through the Boltzmann fitting and integral calculation, the maximum Sr and Sa values were 2.25% K-1 and 0.0049 K-1 at 403 K and 443 K, respectively, the Sr value is four times that obtained from the thermal coupling of Pr3+ ions, which exceeded most values previously reported for the fluorescence powder. Accordingly, we also studied the thermal sensitivity of Er3+ ions and Eu3+ ions mono-doped CaNb2O6 substrates. Results reveal that CaNb2O6:Pr3+/Er3+/Eu3+ phosphors have splendid temperature sensitivity and have far-reaching application prospects in the field of temperature measurements.

A colorimetric optical thermometry of host-sensitized Pr3+-doped niobate phosphors based on electronic-rich-site strategy

This work reports on ratiometric optical thermometers consisting of luminescent lanthanide complexes, namely Ln-PDC (Ln = Nd, Nd1.43Yb0.57, Gd1.45Nd0.40Yb0.15, PDC = pyridine-3,5-dicarboxylate). The fluorescence intensity ratio techniques based on emissions of Stark sublevels of 4F3/2 (Nd3+) excited state for Nd3+-single doped sample, and the intensity ratio of Stark sublevels emissions which is severally from Nd3+ and Yb3+ ions for co-doped samples are employed for the thermometric characterizations in the physiological range (298–318 K).The results show that all three complexes can be employed as luminescent thermometers with comparable temperature sensing performance and operating in biological range under 808-nm excitation. Gd1.45Nd0.40Yb0.15-PDC demonstrates to be the best one with the relative sensitivity varying from 0.482 to 0.439% K−1in the physiological range, and the minimum temperature uncertainty is less than 0.08 K. The results may provide a new approach for lanthanide organic complexes based optical thermometer working in the second biological window.

Nd3+ and Nd3+/Yb3+-incorporated complexes as optical thermometer working in the second biological window

Synthsis and characterization of Tb3+/Eu3+ complexes based on 2,4,6-tris-(4-carboxyphenyl)-1,3,5-triazine ligand for ratiometric luminescence temperature sensing.

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Nd3+ and Nd3+/Yb3+-incorporated complexes as optical thermometer working in the second biological window

Synthsis and characterization of Tb3+/Eu3+ complexes based on 2,4,6-tris-(4-carboxyphenyl)-1,3,5-triazine ligand for ratiometric luminescence temperature sensing.