The miniaturization of transceivers and antennas is enabling the development of Wireless Networks-on-Chip (WNoC), in which chip-scale communication is utilized to increase the computing performance of multi-core/multi-chip architectures. Although the potential benefits of the WNoC paradigm have been studied in depth, its practicality remains unclear due to the lack of a proper characterization of the wireless channel at the chip scale and across the spectrum, among others. In this paper, the state of the art in wave propagation and channel modeling for chip-scale communication is surveyed. First, the peculiarities of WNoC, including the design drivers, architecture, environment, and on-chip electromagnetics are reviewed. After a brief description of the different methods to characterize wave propagation at chip-scales, a comprehensive discussion covering the different works at millimeter-wave (mmWave), Terahertz (THz) and optical frequencies is provided. Finally, the major challenges in the characterization of the WNoC channel and potential solutions to address them are discussed, providing a roadmap for the foundations of practical WNoCs.

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Wave Propagation and Channel Modeling in Chip-Scale Wireless Communications: A Survey From Millimeter-Wave to Terahertz and Optics

Broadband printed-circuit-board characterization using a multimode substrate-integrated-waveguide (SIW) resonator is proposed and investigated in this paper. The resonator sample is fed by two closed rectangular waveguides through two coupling slots positioned at two ends of the cavity. A series of TE $_{\mathrm {10}{k}}$ resonant modes with large mode index can be excited sequentially in the cavity. This design is able to perform an effective control of the frequency interval ( $\Delta f$ ) between two neighboring modes. Besides, $\Delta f$ approaches to be a constant with a large mode index $k$ . This feature is important to test dielectric materials at small and approximately uniform frequency intervals. The detailed design process is introduced to synthesize the dimensions of the resonator sample and the feeding structure for a given operation frequency band. As an example, the Taconic TLY-5 substrate is measured at $Ka$ -band firstly to validate the accuracy of this method. Two types of samples with different thicknesses are fabricated and tested to calibrate the conductor loss. After that, this SIW multimode measurement is employed to accurately test the same substrates over the whole $W$ -band with approximately uniform frequency intervals. This task cannot be implemented by conventional resonance methods based on microstrip lines because of the selection of resonant modes and the radiation leakage.

Broadband Printed-Circuit-Board Characterization Using Multimode Substrate-Integrated- Waveguide Resonator

A novel compact multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna is proposed with wideband gain enhancement. It consists of two identical antenna elements spacing about half wavelength. First, a 1-to-2 Y-shaped power divider with wideband anti-phase outputs is designed to feed two modified Vivaldi radiators. The currents on the two radiating surfaces keep the same direction in a wideband to increase radiation without being canceled. Second, the square-ring unit cell is analyzed to form metasurface, placed in the front of the radiator. It can guide the forward electromagnetic (EM) radiation while reducing the backward radiation. Third, a U-shaped slot is etched between the two modified Vivaldi radiators. It is approximated as an effective electrically small dipole radiator. Such arrangement further effectively enhances the radiation performance in the direction of the main lobe and destructively interferes with the sidelobe radiation. These features make the antenna far-field radiation pattern reshaped. Thereby, the gain is improved in a wide bandwidth. Meanwhile, the MIMO antenna diversity performance is analyzed with low mutual coupling. Wideband gain enhancement contributes to improve the detection capability of the frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar sensor. As a proof of concept, the proposed MIMO antenna prototype is fabricated. The measured impedance bandwidth ranges from 11.5 to 21.3 GHz [59.76% fractional bandwidth (FBW)] with isolation of <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\ge 24.92$ </tex-math></inline-formula> dB. The gain is up to 10.6 dBi, the radiation efficiency is 88.01%–90.02%, and the envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) is <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\le 0.00122$ </tex-math></inline-formula> . Integrated with the transceiver chip fabricated on the 65 nm CMOS process, the proposed MIMO antenna is applied in the FMCW radar sensor. The test system is built up, and the experiments on different breathing conditions are conducted for different human subjects. The proposed MIMO antenna could reduce measurement error, thereby improving measurement accuracy for human respiratory monitoring. 

Wideband Gain Enhancement of MIMO Antenna and Its Application in FMCW Radar Sensor Integrated With CMOS-Based Transceiver Chip for Human Respiratory Monitoring

A gain-enhanced wideband multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna with dual polarization and high isolation is proposed for microbase station application. It includes two mutually orthogonal bowtie dipole radiators, four bowtie parasitic elements with the switch function of ON-/OFF-state, four vertical stubs, and a cavity, which are fed by a pair of 50 $\Omega $ coaxial cables. Shifting between the dual-band and single-band is realized by the switch. Four resonant frequencies are generated by cooperative operation of the radiators and cavity, and thus two wide bands are formed. C-shaped slots on radiators and switch slots on parasitic elements are analyzed for estimating the impact on resonant frequency and bandwidth, and the vertical stubs improve the impedance matching. The proposed wideband antenna achieves enhanced diversity performance in the MIMO antenna system. As a proof of concept, a prototype of the expanded four-element MIMO antenna is fabricated. Measured results match well with simulated data. When the switch is ON-state, it operates in 1.58–2.77 and 4.71–6.18 GHz with gains of 9.4–11.2 and 9.1–10.9 dBi, and radiation efficiencies of ≥87.5% and ≥87%, respectively. When the switch is OFF-state, it operates in 1.56–2.76 GHz with a gain of 8.9–10.1 dBi and radiation efficiency of ≥88%. Element isolation is ≥35.3 dB, and envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) is ≤0.002. The experiment of the established $2 \times 2$ MIMO system demonstrates that it can operate with a lower bit error rate (BER), and the design shows enormous potential to be applied as massive MIMO microbase station antennas.

Compact Dual-Polarized Wideband Antenna With Dual-/Single-Band Shifting for Microbase Station Applications

Ubiquitous multicore processors nowadays rely on an integrated packet-switched network for cores to exchange and share data. The performance of these intra-chip networks is a key determinant of the processor speed and, at high core counts, becomes an important bottleneck due to scalability issues. To address this, several works propose the use of mm-wave wireless interconnects for intra-chip communication and demonstrate that, thanks to their low-latency broadcast and system-level flexibility, this new paradigm could break the scalability barriers of current multicore architectures. However, these same works assume 10+ Gb/s speeds and efficiencies close to 1 pJ/bit without a proper understanding of the wireless intra-chip channel. This paper first demonstrates that such assumptions do not hold in the context of commercial chips by evaluating losses and dispersion in them. Then, we leverage the system’s monolithic nature to engineer the channel , this is, to optimize its frequency response by carefully choosing the chip package dimensions. Finally, we exploit the static nature of the channel to adapt to it , pushing efficiency-speed limits with simple tweaks at the physical layer. Our methods reduce the path loss and delay spread of a simulated commercial chip by 47 dB and $7.3\times $ , respectively, enabling intra-chip wireless communications over 10 Gb/s and only 3.1 dB away from the dispersion-free case.

Engineer the Channel and Adapt to it: Enabling Wireless Intra-Chip Communication

This letter demonstrates the feasibility of applying I/O pins as chip Tx/Rx antennas for implementing wireless inter/intra-chip communications (WIICs). An innovative printed circuit board (PCB) medium is presented as a signal propagation channel, which is specially bounded by a metamaterial electromagnetic wave absorber to improve electromagnetic environment pollution. Presented is a 20.4-GHz WIIC communication system, mainly including a transmitter and a receiver. The bit-error-rate (BER) performance of a coherent binary phase-shift keying interconnect system is evaluated. It is shown that the system performance degrades as the separation distance of the transceivers increases. A data rate of 1 Gb/s with a BER at the level of ${10^{ - 5}}$ on the PCB investigated is achieved for the transmitted power of 10 dBm.

Wireless Inter/Intra-Chip Communication Using an Innovative PCB Channel Bounded by a Metamaterial Absorber

The invention discloses a method of measuring the influence of a radome on the antenna array direction-finding performance. The method comprises the steps of determining various parameters in an antenna array, including antenna coordinates, antenna equivalent aperture data and radome geometry and the like; calculating the amplitude and phase of an electric field generated by each antenna at a far region outside the radome by using a physical optics method; calculating the insertion phase delay of an arbitrary antenna unit in the antenna array; calculating the phase error, that is the difference of the insertion phase delay between two antennas; and calculating an average value of the phase errors of any two antennas in the antenna array system, and finally calculating the difference between the phase error of the two antennas and the average value, that is the phase inconsistency of the radome, for measuring the influence of the radome on the antenna array electrical performance. Compared with the prior art, the invention has the advantages of requiring no knowledge of the working pattern or radiation characteristics of the antenna array in the radome, reducing the complexity and amount of calculation, facilitating requirements of special systems and so forth.

Method of measuring influence of radome on antenna array direction-finding performance

The invention discloses a method for rapidly extracting antenna-radome system electric performance parameters. The method comprises the following steps: to begin with, setting antenna, antenna radome and parameters, and carrying out antenna aperture subdivision; then, calculating an electric field and a magnetic field of the antenna in the inner wall of the radome by utilizing a near-field radiation formula, calculating transmission coefficients of the electromagnetic wave under different polarization conditions by utilizing an equivalent transmission line theorem, and calculating an electric field and a magnetic field on the outer surface of the radome according to the electric field and magnetic field on the inner wall of the radome and the transmission coefficients; and finally, obtaining an out-of-radome far-zone electric field radiation pattern according to the out-of-radome surface integration and a far-zone radiation formula, and obtaining electric performance parameters of the antenna radome. Compared with the existing method, the method in the invention enables various antenna aperture fields, various antenna radome models and various radome wall structures to be put into corresponding libraries to allow convenient fetch and call; control of storage of global result is realized; achievement graphic display and output are realized; and overall efficiency for checking the output achievement in the antenna radome electrical performance research industry is improved.

A method for rapidly extracting antenna-radome system electric performance parameters

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Wireless Inter/Intra-Chip Communication Using an Innovative PCB Channel Bounded by a Metamaterial Absorber

Method of measuring influence of radome on antenna array direction-finding performance

A method for rapidly extracting antenna-radome system electric performance parameters