Commercial lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries suffer from low energy density and do not meet the growing demands of the energy storage market. Therefore, building next-generation rechargeable Li and Li-ion batteries with higher energy densities, better safety characteristics, lower cost and longer cycle life is of outmost importance. To achieve smaller and lighter next-generation rechargeable Li and Li-ion batteries that can outperform commercial Li-ion batteries, several new energy storage chemistries are being extensively studied. In this review, we summarize the current trends and provide guidelines towards achieving this goal, by addressing batteries using high-voltage cathodes, metal fluoride electrodes, chalcogen electrodes, Li metal anodes, high-capacity anodes as well as useful electrolyte solutions. We discuss the choice of active materials, practically achievable energy densities and challenges faced by the respective battery systems. Furthermore, strategies to overcome remaining challenges for achieving energy characteristics are addressed in the hope of providing a useful and balanced assessment of current status and perspectives of rechargeable Li and Li-ion batteries.

Guidelines and trends for next-generation rechargeable lithium and lithium-ion batteries.

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Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

Core-shell materials for advanced batteries

Application of iron fluoride, a promising candidate of cathode materials for lithium ion batteries, is being hindered by its poor electrochemical performance caused by low electronic conductivity and large volume change. Design of carbon-encapsulated transitional metal compounds (including fluoride, oxide, sulfide, etc.) structure is one of the most effective strategies in improving their lithium-ion storage performance. In this work, we successfully synthesize for the first time carbon-nanotube-encapsulated FeF2 nanorods via a facile in situ co-pyrolysis of ferrocene and NH4F. This kind of core/shell carbon nanotube/FeF2 nanorod exhibits better cyclic stability and rate-performance used as cathode materials. Better electrochemical performance of the nanorods should be attributed to the protection of the carbon shell because, experimentally, it is observed that outer carbon shells suffer from high internal stress during Li-ion insertion but efficiently keep the nanorods in the one-dimensional morphology a...

Carbon-Nanotube-Encapsulated FeF2 Nanorods for High-Performance Lithium-Ion Cathode Materials

FeF2 is considered a promising conversion compound for the positive electrode in lithium-ion batteries due to its high thermodynamic reduction potential (2.66 V vs Li/Li+) and high theoretical specific capacity (571 mA h g−1). However, the sluggish reaction kinetics and rapid capacity decay caused by side reactions during cycling limit its practical application. Here, the fabrication of Ni-supported 3D Al2O3-coated FeF2 electrodes is presented, and it is shown that these structured electrodes significantly overcome these limitations. The electrodes are prepared by iron electrodeposition on a Ni support, followed by a facile fluorination process and Al2O3 coating by atomic layer deposition. The 3D FeF2 electrode delivers an initial discharge capacity of 380 mA h g−1 at a current density of 200 mA g−1 at room temperature. The 3D scaffold improves the reaction kinetics and enables a high specific capacity by providing an efficient electron pathway to the insulating FeF2 and short Li diffusion lengths. The Al2O3 coating significantly improves the cycle life, probably by preventing side reactions through limiting direct electrode–electrolyte contact. The fabrication method presented here can also be applied for synthesis of other metal fluoride materials on different 3D conductive templates.

Improved Performance in FeF2 Conversion Cathodes through Use of a Conductive 3D Scaffold and Al2O3 ALD Coating

A one-pot approach towards FeF2-carbon core-shell composite and its application in lithium ion batteries

This paper reports a FeF3·0.33H2O/multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) composite for energy storage applications. The composite material is prepared by solvothermal reaction with FeF3·3H2O and MWCNTs as precursors, and FeF3·3H2O was removed of crystalliferous water and converted to FeF3·0.33H2O during solvothermal treatment. Structural characterizations show that FeF3·0.33H2O that crystalline with a diameter of about 30 nm were distributed in the network of MWCNTs. As a cathode material for lithium ion batteries, FeF3·0.33H2O/MWCNTs was superior to pure FeF3·0.33H2O in terms of high capacity (an initial capacity of 181 mAh g-1 in 2.0-4.3 V at 20 mA g-1), good cycleability (50% capacity retension at 50th cycle) and good rate capability (116 mAh g-1 at 100 mA g-1). The enhanced performances were attributed to the conductive MWCNT network which improved the electron transport ability and buffered volume change of the cathode.

/pdf/electrochemical-performance-of-fef3-0-33h2o-mwcnts-composite-3ek191hyk9.pdf

Electrochemical Performance of FeF3·0.33H2O/MWCNTs Composite Cathode Synthesized by Solvothermal Process

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A one-pot approach towards FeF2-carbon core-shell composite and its application in lithium ion batteries

Electrochemical Performance of FeF3·0.33H2O/MWCNTs Composite Cathode Synthesized by Solvothermal Process