Chromium speciation, bioavailability, uptake, toxicity and detoxification in soil-plant system: A review.

Chromium (Cr) is one of the top seven toxic heavy metals, being ranked 21st among the abundantly found metals in the earth's crust. A huge amount of Cr releases from various industries and Cr mines, which is accumulating in the agricultural land, is significantly reducing the crop development, growth, and yield. Chromium mediates phytotoxicity either by direct interaction with different plant parts and metabolic pathways or it generates internal stress by inducing the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, the role of Cr-induced ROS in the phytotoxicity is very important. In the current study, we reviewed the most recent publications regarding Cr-induced ROS, Cr-induced alteration in the enzymatic antioxidant system, Cr-induced lipid peroxidation and cell membrane damage, Cr-induced DNA damage and genotoxicity, Cr-induced ultrastructural changes in cell and subcellular level, and Cr-induced alterations in photosynthesis and photosynthetic apparatus. Taken together, we conclude that Cr-induced ROS and the suppression of the enzymatic antioxidant system actually mediate Cr-induced cytotoxic, genotoxic, ultrastructural, and photosynthetic changes in plants.

Chromium-Induced Reactive Oxygen Species Accumulation by Altering the Enzymatic Antioxidant System and Associated Cytotoxic, Genotoxic, Ultrastructural, and Photosynthetic Changes in Plants.

In recent decades, environmental pollution with chromium (Cr) has gained significant attention. Although chromium (Cr) can exist in a variety of different oxidation states and is a polyvalent element, only trivalent chromium [Cr(III)] and hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] are found frequently in the natural environment. In the current review, we summarize the biogeochemical procedures that regulate Cr(VI) mobilization, accumulation, bioavailability, toxicity in soils, and probable risks to ecosystem are also highlighted. Plants growing in Cr(VI)-contaminated soils show reduced growth and development with lower agricultural production and quality. Furthermore, Cr(VI) exposure causes oxidative stress due to the production of free radicals which modifies plant morpho-physiological and biochemical processes at tissue and cellular levels. However, plants may develop extensive cellular and physiological defensive mechanisms in response to Cr(VI) toxicity to ensure their survival. To cope with Cr(VI) toxicity, plants either avoid absorbing Cr(VI) from the soil or turn on the detoxifying mechanism, which involves producing antioxidants (both enzymatic and non-enzymatic) for scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, this review also highlights recent knowledge of remediation approaches i.e., bioremediation/phytoremediation, or remediation by using microbes exogenous use of organic amendments (biochar, manure, and compost), and nano-remediation supplements, which significantly remediate Cr(VI)-contaminated soil/water and lessen possible health and environmental challenges. Future research needs and knowledge gaps are also covered. The review’s observations should aid in the development of creative and useful methods for limiting Cr(VI) bioavailability, toxicity and sustainably managing Cr(VI)-polluted soils/water, by clear understanding of mechanistic basis of Cr(VI) toxicity, signaling pathways, and tolerance mechanisms; hence reducing its hazards to the environment.

/pdf/chromium-toxicity-speciation-and-remediation-strategies-in-u9z9o0my.pdf

Chromium toxicity, speciation, and remediation strategies in soil-plant interface: A critical review

Imbalance of redox homeostasis and antioxidant defense status in maize under chromium (VI) stress

Unraveling genes promoting ROS metabolism in subcellular organelles of Oryza sativa in response to trivalent and hexavalent chromium

Co-occurrence of arsenic (As) and chromium (Cr) is observed worldwide. However, their combined effects on plant physiology are not well documented. This experiment was designed to study both individual and combined phytotoxicity of arsenic (As) and chromium (Cr) in jute in terms of plant growth, net photosynthesis, chlorophyll content, oxidative stress and antioxidant enzyme activities. Two jute varieties, O-795 (Cr-tolerant) and O-9897 (Cr-sensitive), were grown under various level of As and/or Cr in pots under greenhouse condition. As or Cr stress significantly decreased plant growth, chlorophyll content, chlorophyll florescence (Fv/Fm), photosynthetic rate (Pn) and caused oxidative damage compared to control, indicated by increased MDA and H2O2 contents. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR) and catalase (CAT), were dramatically increased in both varieties compared to control. Moreover, less severe inhibition of plant growth and oxidative damage was observed in O-795 than in O-9897 indicating variety O-795 had more efficient defense system to mitigate heavy metal induced oxidative stress. The combined stress of low level of As (50 mg kg -1 ) plus Cr treatment caused less inhibition of plant growth and alleviated oxidative stress, in both varieties compared to Cr stress alone. In contrast, high level (100 mg kg -1 ) As plus Cr caused a further decreased plant growth and chlorophyll content, increased MDA and H2O2 contents as well as antioxidative enzymes activities significantly (P≤0.05). These results suggest that the combined toxicity of low level As plus Cr in jute is lower than that of individual Cr or As. As exposure up to 50 mg kg -1 is supposed to be useful in mitigating Cr toxicity and more than 50 mg kg -1 had the synergistic toxic effect.

/pdf/the-interaction-of-arsenic-as-and-chromium-cr-influences-3go6g91xli.pdf

The interaction of arsenic (As) and chromium (Cr) influences growth and antioxidant status in tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius)

Arsenic (As) and Chromium (Cr) toxicity often occurs concurrently in agricultural soils, which lead to a significant decline in crop growth and yield. A pot experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of As and Cr in the soil on the uptake of mineral elements as well as As and Cr in the two jute varieties differing in Cr tolerance during May to October, 2013. Here we report the effects of combined As and Cr stresses on plant biomass, photosynthesis, metal and nutrient uptake compared to As or Cr stress alone. Chromium tolerant variety, O-795, had significantly (p≤0.05) higher Cr and As levels in roots, stems and leaf tissues than Cr sensitive variety, O-9897. Roots had much higher As and Cr contents than above-ground parts. Arsenic stress reduced potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) contents in the roots and inhibited calcium (Ca), and from being translocated into shoots and leaves. Chromium stress resulted in decreased concentration of K, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn and increased concentrations of Ca concentration in the root tissues. Furthermore, translocation of all nutrients from roots to upper parts of plants was inhibited except Ca. The combined stresses of low level of As (50 mg kg) plus each Cr treatment showed less inhibition of nutrient uptake, in both varieties when compared with each Cr stress alone, indicating that low levels As plus Cr showed beneficial effect than single stress. In contrast, high levels (100 mg kg) of As plus Cr showed further decrease in all nutrient concentrations except Ca in all plant parts. These results suggest that the combined toxicity effect of low level As plus Cr on jute plant was lower than that of Cr or As treatment alone. Moreover, the reduction was more pronounced significantly (p≤0.05) in Cr sensitive variety O-9897.

/pdf/interactive-effects-of-arsenic-and-chromium-stresses-on-rocfpu4a7j.pdf

Interactive effects of arsenic and chromium stresses on mineral and metal uptake in jute (Corchorus olitorius L.)

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The interaction of arsenic (As) and chromium (Cr) influences growth and antioxidant status in tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius)

Interactive effects of arsenic and chromium stresses on mineral and metal uptake in jute (Corchorus olitorius L.)