The mitochondrion is at the core of cellular energy metabolism, being the site of most ATP generation. Calcium is a key regulator of mitochondrial function and acts at several levels within the organelle to stimulate ATP synthesis. However, the dysregulation of mitochondrial Ca(2+) homeostasis is now recognized to play a key role in several pathologies. For example, mitochondrial matrix Ca(2+) overload can lead to enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species, triggering of the permeability transition pore, and cytochrome c release, leading to apoptosis. Despite progress regarding the independent roles of both Ca(2+) and mitochondrial dysfunction in disease, the molecular mechanisms by which Ca(2+) can elicit mitochondrial dysfunction remain elusive. This review highlights the delicate balance between the positive and negative effects of Ca(2+) and the signaling events that perturb this balance. Overall, a "two-hit" hypothesis is developed, in which Ca(2+) plus another pathological stimulus can bring about mitochondrial dysfunction.

https://www.physiology.org/doi/pdf/10.1152/ajpcell.00139.2004

Calcium, ATP, and ROS: a mitochondrial love-hate triangle

Role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis.

Hepatitis C Virus Core Protein Inhibits Mitochondrial Electron Transport and Increases Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Production

https://aasldpubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/hep.1840170523

Functional inactivation of neutrophils with a Mac-1 (CD11b/CD18) monoclonal antibody protects against ischemia-reperfusion injury in rat liver.

The interplay among reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, elevated intracellular calcium concentration and mitochondrial demise is a recurring theme in research focusing on brain pathology, both for acute and chronic neurodegenerative states. However, causality, extent of contribution or the sequence of these events prior to cell death is not yet firmly established. Here we review the role of the alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex as a newly identified source of mitochondrial ROS production. Furthermore, based on contemporary reports we examine novel concepts as potential mediators of neuronal injury connecting mitochondria, increased [Ca2+]c and ROS/reactive nitrogen species (RNS) formation; specifically: (a) the possibility that plasmalemmal nonselective cationic channels contribute to the latent [Ca2+]c rise in the context of glutamate-induced delayed calcium deregulation; (b) the likelihood of the involvement of the channels in the phenomenon of 'Ca2+ paradox' that might be implicated in ischemia/reperfusion injury; and (c) how ROS/RNS and mitochondrial status could influence the activity of these channels leading to loss of ionic homeostasis and cell death.

https://febs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1742-4658.2005.05103.x

Calcium, mitochondria and oxidative stress in neuronal pathology

Using the isolated perfused rat liver, we examined the effect of stimulation of mitochondrial respiration by 2,4-dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) and adrenaline on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, liver damage and lipid peroxidation. ROS production was monitored by luminol- and lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence and oxygen uptake was measured simultaneously. Liver damage and lipid peroxidation were evaluated by measuring hepatic lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and thiobarbituric acid reacting substances (TBARS) release. Tissue ROS level decreased and oxygen uptake increased soon after 2,4-DNP infusion. On termination of 2,4-DNP infusion, there was a sharp increase in lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence, which declined slowly, but luminol-enhanced chemiluminescence did not change prominently. Hepatic LDH and TBARS release increased gradually during 2,4-DNP infusion and were manifested by termination of the infusion. Allopurinol did not affect ROS production and TBARS release, but delayed increases in LDH release after termination of 2,4-DNP infusion. Adrenaline, which stimulates mitochondrial respiration without uncoupling caused similar but smaller ROS changes observed in 2,4-DNP. LDH and TBARS release were not affected significantly by adrenaline infusion. These results indicate that uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation decreases ROS production and restoration of oxidative phosphorylation enhances ROS production and liver damage. Xanthine oxidase is unlikely to contribute to enhanced ROS production after termination of 2,4-DNP but has some protective effect during uncoupling.

Comparison of the effect of a mitochondrial uncoupler, 2,4-dinitrophenol and adrenaline on oxygen radical production in the isolated perfused rat liver.

Glutathione and ischemia-reperfusion injury in the perfused rat liver.

The influx of extracellular Ca2+ has been postulated to be one of the mediators of ischemia-reperfusion injury. A possible link between Ca2+ influx and oxygen radical generation has also been suggested. In the present study, using the isolated perfused rat liver, we evaluated the role of extracellular Ca2+ on oxygen radical generation, liver damage, and lipid peroxidation during 30 min ischemia and 60 min of reperfusion. Oxygen radical generation in the liver was continuously monitored by lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence. Liver damage and lipid peroxidation were evaluated by measuring lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) release into the effusate, respectively. In the absence of extracellular Ca2+ (much less than 30 microM) oxygen radical generation from the liver increased gradually over 2 hr and there were concomitant increases in LDH and TBARS release. When livers were made ischemic and then reperfused, oxygen radical generation increased at the onset of reperfusion and then decreased over 30 min of reperfusion. After 30 min of reperfusion, livers reperfused with low Ca2+ buffer showed a linear increase in oxygen radical generation as well as progressive increases in LDH and TBARS release. On the other hand, livers reperfused with Ca2+ containing (1.25 mM) buffer showed no further increase in oxygen radical generation and no evidence of progressive liver damage and lipid peroxidation. These results suggest that Ca2+ overload is not a primary cause of liver ischemia-reperfusion injury and that the presence of extracellular Ca2+ during reperfusion is necessary to maintain normal liver function.

Role of extracellular Ca2+ in ischemia-reperfusion injury in the isolated perfused rat liver.

Using lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence, isolated rat lungs perfused with physiological salt-Ficoll solution were studied to test whether phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)-induced lung injury was mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). PMA (0.03 micrograms ml-1) caused small but significant increases in lung ROS levels and pulmonary arterial perfusion pressure (Ppa) but did not induce lung oedema. PMA (0.15 micrograms ml-1) induced lung oedema with large increases in ROS production and Ppa. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) inhibited the increases in ROS, Ppa, and lung oedema. Catalase and dimethylthiourea inhibited lung oedema but did not attenuate the increases in ROS and Ppa entirely. Indomethacin attenuated lung oedema partially but did not inhibit the increases in ROS and Ppa. These data indicate that PMA-induced lung injury is dependent on PMA concentration and ROS are responsible for such lung injury. Thromboxane plays a minor role for PMA-induced lung injury. The different effects of oxygen radical scavengers suggest that different radical species contribute to the increased pulmonary vascular response and lung injury.

Phorbol myristate acetate-induced lung injury: involvement of reactive oxygen species.

Depletion and repletion of Ca2+ in the perfused rat liver.

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