opment, which includes social capital as one of its explanatory factors. In the absence of this analysis, we do not know if social capital is really driving political development or some other factor, such as economic development. Overall, this is a bold and ambitious book which examines participation across the world with a big theoretical canvas and a broad range of data. However, a more judicious analysis of the data and a greater recognition of the limitations of the sources would have made it a better book.

The Futures of European Capitalism

The Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat model of ADHD – the importance of selecting the appropriate reference strain

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a heterogeneous, highly heritable, behavioral disorder that affects ∼5% to 10% of children worldwide. Although animal models cannot truly reflect human psychiatric disorders, they can provide insight into the disorder that cannot be obtained from human studies because of the limitations of available techniques. Genetic models include the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR), the Naples High Excitability (NHE) rat, poor performers in the 5-choice serial reaction time (5-CSRT) task, the dopamine transporter (DAT) knock-out mouse, the SNAP-25 deficient mutant coloboma mouse, mice expressing a human mutant thyroid hormone receptor, a nicotinic receptor knock-out mouse, and a tachykinin-1 (NK1) receptor knock-out mouse. Chemically induced models of ADHD include prenatal or early postnatal exposure to ethanol, nicotine, polychlorinated biphenyls, or 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Environmentally induced models have also been suggested; these include neonatal anoxia and rat pups reared in social isolation. The major insight provided by animal models was the consistency of findings regarding the involvement of dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and sometimes also serotonergic systems, as well as more fundamental defects in neurotransmission.

Overview of Animal Models of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

The Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat is an established depression model characterized by elevated anxiety- and depression-like behavior across a variety of tests. Here we further characterized specific behavioral and functional domains relevant to depression that are altered in WKY rats. Moreover, since early-life experience potently shapes emotional behavior, we also determined whether aspects of WKYs’ phenotype were modifiable by early-life factors using neonatal handling or maternal separation. We first compared WKYs’ behavior to that of Sprague-Dawley (SD), Wistar, and Spontaneously Hypertensive (SHR) rats in: the open field test, elevated plus maze, novelty-suppressed feeding test, a social interaction test, and the forced swim test (FST). WKYs exhibited high baseline immobility in the FST and were the only strain to show increased immobility on FST Day 2 vs. Day 1 (an indicator of learned helplessness). WKYs also showed greater social avoidance, along with enlarged adrenal glands and hearts relative to other strains. We next tested whether neonatal handling or early-life maternal separation stress influenced WKYs’ behavior. Neither manipulation affected their anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors, likely due to a strong genetic underpinning of their phenotype. Our findings indicate that WKY rats are a useful model that captures specific functional domains relevant to clinical depression including: psychomotor retardation, behavioral inhibition, learned helplessness, social withdrawal, and physiological dysfunction. WKY rats appear to be resistant to early-life manipulations (i.e. neonatal handling) that are therapeutic in other strains, and may be a useful model for the development of personalized anti-depressant therapies for treatment resistant depression.

/pdf/learned-helplessness-and-social-avoidance-in-the-wistar-4yt3ldkpo8.pdf

Learned helplessness and social avoidance in the Wistar-Kyoto rat

A certain level of arousal is required for an individual to perform optimally, and the locus coeruleus norepinephrine (LC-NE) system plays a central role in optimizing arousal. Tonic firing of LC-NE neurons needs to be held within a narrow range of 1–3 Hz to facilitate phasic firing of the LC-NE neurons; these two modes of activity act synergistically, to allow the individual to perform attentional tasks optimally. How this information can be applied to further our understanding of psychiatric disorders has not been fully elucidated. Here we propose two models of altered LC-NE activity that result in attentional deficits characteristic of psychiatric disorders: 1) ‘hypoaroused’ individuals with e.g. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have decreased tonic firing of the LC-NE system, resulting in decreased cortical arousal and poor attentional performance and 2) ‘hyperaroused’ individuals with e.g. anxiety disorders have increased tonic firing of the LC-NE system, resulting in increased cortical arousal and impaired attentional performance. We argue that hypoarousal (decreased tonic firing of LC-NE neurons) and hyperarousal (increased tonic firing of LC-NE neurons) are suboptimal states in which phasic activity of LC-NE neurons is impeded. To further understand the neurobiology of attentional dysfunction in psychiatric disorders a translational approach that integrates findings on the LC-NE arousal system from animal models and human imaging studies may be useful.

Synergistic tonic and phasic activity of the locus coeruleus norepinephrine (LC-NE) arousal system is required for optimal attentional performance

Since the global financial crisis in 2008, complementary currencies - from local initiatives like the Brixton Pound to timebanks, business-to-business currencies and, of course, Bitcoin - have received unprecedented attention by academics, policy makers, the media and the general public. However, at close theoretic inspection money itself remains as elusive a phenomenon as water must be to fish. Economic and business disciplines commonly only describe the use and functionality of money rather than its nature. Sociology and philosophy have a more fundamental set of approaches, but remain largely unintegrated in financial policy and common perception. At the same time, new forms of currency challenge predominant definitions of money and their implementation in the law and financial regulation. Unless our understanding of money and currencies is questioned and extended to consistently reflect theory and practice, its current misalignment threatens to impede much needed reform and innovation of the financial systems towards equity, democratic participation and sustainability. After reviewing current monetary theories and their epistemological underpinning, this thesis proposes a new theoretic framework of money as a ‘discursive institution’ that can be applied coherently to all monetary phenomena, conventional and unconventional. It also allows for the empirical analysis of currencies with the methodologies of neo-institutionalism, practice theory and critical discourse analysis. This will here be demonstrated in a transdisciplinary triangulation concerning three sets of data from the diverse field of complementary currencies, the publications of the Bank of England and monetary laws from the United States. The findings do not only demonstrate the heuristic value of the theory of discursive institutionalism in regard to money and complementary currencies, but highlight how regulatory and legal definitions even of conventional money lack the coherence and clarity required to appropriately explicate monetary innovation. Accordingly, this study concludes with recommendations for monetary theory, policy and research that can address the current inconsistencies.

The grammar of money:an analytical account of money as a discursive institution in light of the practice of complementary currencies

Credibility and legitimacy are required to improve the design and implementation of complementary currency systems (CCS) and to engage with public institutions, while depending on sustained support from funders. It is hence necessary to evidence the impact of CCS as effective and efficient tools to reach sustainable development goals. Only around a fourth of the existing studies even touch upon impact evaluation processes. A standardisation of impact evaluation would lead to improve the quantity, quality and comparability of the data collected, as well as to support longitudinal studies and juxtapositions of different types of currencies in their environmental and socio-economic context. After reviewing the literature, this article proposes two complementary approaches to assess the impact of CCS: a prototype of an integral Impact Assessment Matrix based on the goals, objectives and performance indicators, and a tool based on the “Theory of Change” methodology as a common, comprehensive and incremental approach for impact evaluation. Both propositions are currently being applied and further developed by the authors.

/pdf/validating-and-improving-the-impact-of-complementary-2azaa5792t.pdf

Validating and improving the impact of complementary currency systems through impact assessment frameworks

http://doc.rero.ch/record/32637/files/Validating_complementary_christophe_place.pdf

Validating complementary and community currencies as an efficient tool for social and solidarity economy networking and development

Background: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a highly heritable developmental disorder resulting from complex gene-gene and gene-environment interactions. The most widely used animal model, the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR), displays the major symptoms of ADHD (deficits in attention, impulsivity and hyperactivity) and has a disturbance in the noradrenergic system when compared to control Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY). The aim of the present study was to determine whether the ADHD-like characteristics of SHR were purely genetically determined or dependent on the gene-environment interaction provided by the SHR dam. Methods: SHR/NCrl (Charles River, USA), WKY/NCrl (Charles River, USA) and Sprague Dawley rats (SD/Hsd, Harlan, UK) were bred at the University of Cape Town. Rat pups were cross-fostered on postnatal day 2 (PND 2). Control rats remained with their birth mothers to serve as a reference for their particular strain phenotype. Behavior in the open-field and the elevated-plus maze was assessed between PND 29 and 33. Two days later, rats were decapitated and glutamate-stimulated release of [ 3 H]norepinephrine was determined in prefrontal cortex and hippocampal slices. Results: There was no significant effect of "strain of dam" but there was a significant effect of "pup strain" on all parameters investigated. SHR pups travelled a greater distance in the open field, spent a longer period of time in the inner zone and entered the inner zone of the open-field more frequently than SD or WKY. SD were more active than WKY in the open-field. WKY took longer to enter the inner zone than SHR or SD. In the elevatedplus maze, SHR spent less time in the closed arms, more time in the open arms and entered the open arms more frequently than SD or WKY. There was no difference between WKY and SD behavior in the elevated-plus maze. SHR released significantly more [ 3 H]norepinephrine in response to glutamate than SD or WKY in both hippocampus and prefrontal cortex while SD prefrontal cortex released more [ 3 H]norepinephrine than WKY. SHR were resilient, cross-fostering did not reduce their ADHD-like behavior or change their neurochemistry. Cross-fostering of SD pups onto SHR or WKY dams increased their exploratory behavior without altering their anxiety-like behavior. Conclusion: The ADHD-like behavior of SHR and their neurochemistry is genetically determined and not dependent on nurturing by SHR dams. The similarity between WKY and SD supports the continued use of WKY as a control for SHR and suggests that SD may be a useful additional reference strain for SHR. The fact that SD behaved similarly to WKY in the elevated-plus maze argues against the use of WKY as a model for anxiety-like disorders.

/pdf/cross-fostering-does-not-alter-the-neurochemistry-or-3wuj3negv1.pdf

Cross-fostering does not alter the neurochemistry or behavior of spontaneously hypertensive rats.

External shocks, like the climate catastrophe or the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as intrinsic fallacies like the securitization of bad debt leading up to the financial crisis in 2008, point to the need for updating our monetary and financial systems. Ensuring their adequacy and resilience is an important factor for sustainability at large. This paper examines the definitions of “money” and “currency” in financial legislation as a foundational factor in achieving systemic resilience by allowing or hampering monetary innovation and diversity. From the unencumbered vantage point that the practice of complementary currencies offers, definitions of the terms “money” and “currency” are here traced through the laws and regulations of the United States of America, from the beginnings of modern banking to the recent rulings on crypto-currencies. They are both found to be used and defined in contradictory ways that are inapt even in regard to conventional modern banking practices, let alone when applied to novelty in payment, issuance and valuation. Consequently, this paper argues that basic legal definitions need to be reviewed and consolidated to enable the innovation and diversification in monetary systems needed for long term macro-economic stability. With this in mind, a terminology that is consistent with monetary practice—current, past and future—as well as the procedural difficulties of reforming laws and regulations is proposed.

https://www.mdpi.com/1911-8074/14/2/55/pdf

Inconsistent Definitions of Money and Currency in Financial Legislation as a Threat to Innovation and Sustainability

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