The rapid development of wearable smart devices has contributed to the enormous demands for smart flexible strain sensors. However, to date, the poor stretchability and sensitivity of conventional metals or inorganic semiconductor-based strain sensors have restricted their application in this field to some extent, and hence many efforts have been devoted to find suitable candidates to overcome these limitations. Recently, novel resistive-type electrically conductive polymer composites (ECPCs)-based strain sensors have attracted attention based on their merits of light weight, flexibility, stretchability, and easy processing, thus showing great potential applications in the fields of human movement detection, artificial muscles, human–machine interfaces, soft robotic skin, etc. For ECPCs-based strain sensors, the conductive filler type and the phase morphology design have important influences on the sensing property. Meanwhile, to achieve a successful application toward wearable devices, several imperative features, including a self-healing capability, superhydrophobicity, and good light transmission, need to be considered. The aim of the present review is to critically review the progress of ECPCs-based strain sensors and to foresee their future development.

Electrically conductive polymer composites for smart flexible strain sensors: a critical review

Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) based conductive polymer composites (CPCs) with a reduced percolation threshold and tunable resistance–strain sensing behavior were obtained through the addition of synergistic carbon nanotubes (CNT) and graphene bifillers. The percolation threshold of graphene was about 0.006 vol% when the CNT content was fixed at 0.255 vol% that is below the percolation threshold of CNT/TPU nanocomposites. The synergistic effect between graphene and CNT was identified using the excluded volume theory. Graphene acted as a ‘spacer’ to separate the entangled CNTs from each other and the CNT bridged the broad gap between individual graphene sheets, which was beneficial for the dispersion of CNT and formation of effective conductive paths, leading to better electrical conductivity at a lower conductive filler content. Compared with the dual-peak response pattern of the CNT/TPU based strain sensors, the CPCs with hybrid conductive fillers displayed single-peak response patterns under small strain, indicating good tunability with the synergistic effect of CNT and graphene. Under larger strain, prestraining was adopted to regulate the conductive network, and better tunable single-peak response patterns were also obtained. The CPCs also showed good reversibility and reproductivity under cyclic extension. This study paves the way for the fabrication of CPC based strain sensors with good tunability.

Electrically conductive strain sensing polyurethane nanocomposites with synergistic carbon nanotubes and graphene bifillers

Electrically conductive composites comprising polymers and graphene are extremely versatile and have a wide range of potential applications. The conductivity of these composites depends on the choice of polymer matrix, the type of graphene filler, the processing methodology, and any post-production treatments. In this review, we discuss the progress in graphene-polymer composites for electrical applications. Graphene filler types are reviewed, the progress in modelling these composites is outlined, the current optimal composites are presented, and the example of strain sensors is used to demonstrate their application.

/pdf/electrical-percolation-in-graphene-polymer-composites-4qq5g8p2if.pdf

Electrical percolation in graphene-polymer composites

There is a growing demand for stretchable strain sensors because of their potential applications in various emerging fields, such as human motion detection, health monitoring, wearable electronics, and soft robotic skin. Recently, strain sensors based on flexible conductive polymer composites (FCPCs) composed of conductive materials and a stretchable elastomer have received intensive attention owing to their high stretchability, good flexibility, excellent durability, tunable strain sensing behaviors, and ease of processing. Here, we systematically summarize the recent progress of stretchable strain sensors based on FCPCs. This review covers the classification and sensing mechanisms as well as the influence of multiple factors on the sensing behaviors of FCPC based strain sensors with detailed examples.

An overview of stretchable strain sensors from conductive polymer nanocomposites

Electrically conductive segregated networks were built in poly(L-lactide)/multi-walled carbon nanotube (PLLA/MWCNT) nanocomposites without sacrificing their mechanical properties via simply choosing two different PLLA polymers with different viscosities and crystallinities. First, the MWCNTs were dispersed in PLLA with low viscosity and crystallinity (L-PLLA) to obtain the L-PLANT phase. Second, the PLLA particles with high viscosity and crystallinity (H-PLLA) were well coated with the L-PLANT phase at 140 °C which was below the melting temperature of H-PLLA. Finally, the coated H-PLLA particles were compressed above the melting temperature of H-PLLA to form the PLLA/MWCNT nanocomposites with segregated structures. The morphological observation showed the successful location of MWCNTs in the continuous L-PLLA phase, resulting in an ultralow percolation threshold of 0.019 vol% MWCNTs. The electrical conductivity and the electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding effectiveness (SE) of the composites with the segregated structure are 25 S m−1 and ∼30 dB, showing three orders and 36% higher than that of the samples with a random distribution of MWCNTs with 0.8 vol% of MWCNT loading, respectively. High-performance electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding was also observed mainly dependent on the highly efficient absorption shielding, which can be achieved by the densely continuous MWCNT networks and the abundant interfaces induced by the segregated structures. Furthermore, the composites with segregated structures not only showed higher Young's modulus and tensile strength than the corresponding conventional composites, but also maintained high elongation at break because of the continuous and dense MWCNT networks induced by the segregated structures and the high interfacial interaction between H-PLLA and L-PLLA.

Ultralow percolation threshold and enhanced electromagnetic interference shielding in poly(L-lactide)/multi-walled carbon nanotube nanocomposites with electrically conductive segregated networks

Tunable resistivity–temperature characteristics of an electrically conductive multi-walled carbon nanotubes/epoxy composite

The invention belongs to the technical field of manufacture of CPCs (conductive polymer composites), and particularly relates to a PTC (positive temperature coefficient) polymer-matrix conductive composite with adjustable PTC strength and a preparation method of the composite. The PTC polymer-matrix conductive composite comprises raw materials in parts by weight as follows: 93-99 parts of a polymer base material and 1-7 parts of conductive filler; the PTC polymer-matrix conductive composite has an isolation structure, the grain size of the polymer base material is 5-1,400 mu m, and the PTC strength of the PTC polymer-matrix conductive composite is 100-106. According to the PTC polymer-matrix conductive composite, the grain size of the polymer base material is changed, so that the PTC strength of the PTC polymer-matrix conductive composite is changed in a range of 100-106.

PTC (positive temperature coefficient) polymer-matrix conductive composite with adjustable PTC strength and preparation method of composite

The invention relates to the field of conductive high-molecular materials, and specifically relates to a conductive high-molecular composite material with a dendritic cellular structure. The conductive high-molecular composite material comprises the raw materials of, by weight, 1-5 parts of a thermoplastic elastomer material, 1-4 parts of thermosetting resin, 0.1-2 parts of a curing agent, and 0.01-1 part of conductive particles. The conductive high-molecular composite material has a dendritic cellular structure. The electrical performance of the high-molecular composite material is improved and stable, and the percolation threshold is low.

Conductive high-molecular composite material with dendritic cellular structure, and preparation method thereof

Electrically conductive thermoplastic polyurethane/polypropylene nanocomposites with selectively distributed graphene

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Tunable resistivity–temperature characteristics of an electrically conductive multi-walled carbon nanotubes/epoxy composite

PTC (positive temperature coefficient) polymer-matrix conductive composite with adjustable PTC strength and preparation method of composite

Conductive high-molecular composite material with dendritic cellular structure, and preparation method thereof

Electrically conductive thermoplastic polyurethane/polypropylene nanocomposites with selectively distributed graphene