Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a long-lived greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. Emissions of N2O mainly stem from agricultural soils. This review highlights the principal factors from peer-reviewed literature affecting N2O emissions from agricultural soils, by grouping the factors into three categories: environmental, management and measurement. Within these categories, each impact factor is explained in detail and its influence on N2O emissions from the soil is summarized. It is also shown how each impact factor influences other impact factors. Process-based simulation models used for estimating N2O emissions are reviewed regarding their ability to consider the impact factors in simulating N2O. The model strengths and weaknesses in simulating N2O emissions from managed soils are summarized. Finally, three selected process-based simulation models (Daily Century (DAYCENT), DeNitrification-DeComposition (DNDC), and Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)) are discussed that are widely used to simulate N2O emissions from cropping systems. Their ability to simulate N2O emissions is evaluated by describing the model components that are relevant to N2O processes and their representation in the model.

https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/11/4/770/pdf

Factors That Influence Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Agricultural Soils as Well as Their Representation in Simulation Models: A Review

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is collected, transported, and disposed of in an unorganized and disordered manner in lower- and middle-income countries. Improper waste disposal in landfills can have severe environmental consequences in terms of groundwater, soil and air contamination, resulting in numerous health hazards. In India, Landfills require 1240 ha of land per year and only 21% of MSW is adequately managed. The remaining MSW is not reprocessed or recovered through treatment technologies and is generally disposed of in an un-hygienic landfill. Urban or rural solid waste is usually dumped in low-lying areas, which adds to the greenhouse gas emissions, obnoxious odor production and causes fire hazards that adversely affect the local ecosystem. Landfills contribute to CH4 production and about 29% of all GHGs emissions, which is more than 15% of the average global contribution. It is also noticed that by 2030 and 2050, global GHGs emissions will rise to 64% and 76% due to uncontrolled waste disposal systems. The study highlights effective solid waste management practices and discusses ways to manage it sustainably through resource recovery. As a result, the study concentrated on using waste-to-energy technologies that still require significant support for execution. The study concluded that waste-to-energy technologies need adequate financial and government support. Further, extreme resource recovery from the waste must be linked with a secure waste disposal system via engineered landfill construction and waste-to-energy plants' operation. Solid waste management also needs local corporations to effectively manage the waste services following national-specific policies and standards, including community awareness and participation, system responsibilities and use of emerging technologies. This will aid in reducing the adverse effects of MSW disposal and achieve the UN's sustainable development goals. 

Municipal solid waste landfills in lower- and middle-income countries: Environmental impacts, challenges and sustainable management practices

Currently, nitrogen fertilizers are utilized to meet 48% of the total global food demand. The demand for nitrogen fertilizers is expected to grow as global populations continue to rise. The use of nitrogen fertilizers is associated with many negative environmental impacts and is a key source of greenhouse and harmful gas emissions. In recent years, urease and nitrification inhibitors have emerged as mitigation tools that are presently utilized in agriculture to prevent nitrogen losses and reduce greenhouse and harmful gas emissions that are associated with the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers. Both classes of inhibitor work by different mechanisms and have different physiochemical properties. Consequently, each class must be evaluated on its own merits. Although there are many benefits associated with the use of these inhibitors, little is known about their potential to enter the food chain, an event that may pose challenges to food safety. This phenomenon was highlighted when the nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide was found as a residual contaminant in milk products in 2013. This comprehensive review aims to discuss the uses of inhibitor technologies in agriculture and their possible impacts on dairy product safety and quality, highlighting areas of concern with regards to the introduction of these inhibitor technologies into the dairy supply chain. Furthermore, this review discusses the benefits and challenges of inhibitor usage with a focus on EU regulations, as well as associated health concerns, chemical behavior, and analytical detection methods for these compounds within milk and environmental matrices.

Urease and Nitrification Inhibitors—As Mitigation Tools for Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Sustainable Dairy Systems: A Review

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is mainly universal greenhouse gas associated with climate change. However, beyond CO2, some other greenhouse gases (GHGs) like methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), being two notable gases, contribute to global warming. Since 1900, the concentrations of CO2 and non-CO2 GHG emissions have been elevating, and due to the effects of the previous industrial revolution which is responsible for climate forcing. Globally, emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O from agricultural sectors are increasing as around 1% annually. Moreover, deforestation also contributes 12–17% of total global GHGs. Perhaps, the average temperature is likely to increase globally, at least 2 °C by 2100—by mid-century. These circumstances are responsible for climate forcing, which is the source of various human health diseases and environmental risks. From agricultural soils, rhizospheric microbial communities have a significant role in the emissions of greenhouse gases. Every year, microbial communities release approximately 1.5–3 billion tons of carbon into the atmospheric environment. Microbial nitrification, denitrification, and respiration are the essential processes that affect the nitrogen cycle in the terrestrial environment. In the twenty-first century, climate change is the major threat faced by human beings. Climate change adversely influences human health to cause numerous diseases due to their direct association with climate change. This review highlights the different anthropogenic GHG emission sources, the response of microbial communities to climate change, climate forcing potential, and mitigation strategies through different agricultural management approaches and microbial communities.

Biogeochemical transformation of greenhouse gas emissions from terrestrial to atmospheric environment and potential feedback to climate forcing

https://pure.sruc.ac.uk/ws/files/15265872/15011.pdf

Nitrogen use efficiency and nitrous oxide emissions from five UK fertilised grasslands.

/pdf/impact-of-fertiliser-nitrogen-formulation-and-n-stabilisers-4rf8it55su.pdf

Impact of fertiliser nitrogen formulation, and N stabilisers on nitrous oxide emissions in spring barley

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Impact of fertiliser nitrogen formulation, and N stabilisers on nitrous oxide emissions in spring barley