Traditionally, bioactive glasses have been used to fill and restore bone defects. More recently, this category of biomaterials has become an emerging research field for bone tissue engineering applications. Here, we review and discuss current knowledge on porous bone tissue engineering scaffolds on the basis of melt-derived bioactive silicate glass compositions and relevant composite structures. Starting with an excerpt on the history of bioactive glasses, as well as on fundamental requirements for bone tissue engineering scaffolds, a detailed overview on recent developments of bioactive glass and glass-ceramic scaffolds will be given, including a summary of common fabrication methods and a discussion on the microstructural-mechanical properties of scaffolds in relation to human bone (structure-property and structure-function relationship). In addition, ion release effects of bioactive glasses concerning osteogenic and angiogenic responses are addressed. Finally, areas of future research are highlighted in this review.

https://pure.tue.nl/ws/files/3034662/Metis245608.pdf

Bioactive Glass and Glass-Ceramic Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering

Increased use of reconstruction procedures in orthopedics, due to trauma, tumor, deformity, degeneration and an aging population, has caused a blossom, not only in surgical advancement, but also in the development of bone implants. Traditional synthetic porous scaffolds are made of metals, polymers, ceramics or even composite biomaterials, in which the design does not consider the native structure and properties of cells and natural tissues. Thus, these synthetic scaffolds often poorly integrate with the cells and surrounding host tissue, thereby resulting in unsatisfactory surgical outcomes due to poor corrosion and wear, mechanical mismatch, unamiable surface environment, and other unfavorable properties. Musculoskeletal tissue reconstruction is the ultimate objective in orthopedic surgery. This objective can be achieved by (i) prosthesis or fixation device implantation, and (ii) tissue engineered bone scaffolds. These devices focus on the design of implants, regardless of the choice of new biomaterials. Indeed, metallic materials, e.g. 316L stainless steel, titanium alloys and cobalt chromium alloys, are predominantly used in bone surgeries, especially in the load-bearing zone of prostheses. The engineered scaffolds take biodegradability, cell biology, biomolecules and material mechanical properties into account, in which these features are ideally suited for bone tissue repair and regeneration. Therefore, the design of the scaffold is extremely important to the success of clinical outcomes in musculoskeletal surgeries. The ideal scaffolds should mimic the natural extracellular matrix (ECM) as much as possible, since the ECM found in natural tissues supports cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation, indicating that scaffolds should consist of appropriate biochemistry and nano/micro-scale surface topographies, in order to formulate favorable binding sites to actively regulate and control cell and tissue behavior, while interacting with host cells. In addition, scaffolds should also possess a similar macro structure to what is found in natural bone. This feature may provide space for the growth of cells and new tissues, as well as for the carriers of growth factors. Another important concern is the mechanical properties of scaffolds. It has been reported that the mechanical features can significantly influence the osteointegration between implants and surrounding tissues, as well as cell behaviors. Since natural bone exhibits super-elastic biomechanical properties with a Young's modulus value in the range of 1–27 GPa, the ideal scaffolds should mimic strength, stiffness and mechanical behavior, so as to avoid possible post-operation stress shielding effects, which induce bone resorption and consequent implant failure. In addition, the rate of degradation and the by-products of biodegradable materials are also critical in the role of bone regeneration. Indeed, the mechanical integrity of a scaffold will be significantly reduced if the degradation rate is rapid, thereby resulting in a pre-matured collapse of the scaffold before the tissue is regenerated. Another concern is that the by-products upon degradation may alter the tissue microenvironment and then challenge the biocompatibility of the scaffold and the subsequent tissue repair. Therefore, these two factors should be carefully considered when designing new biomaterials for tissue regeneration. To address the aforementioned questions, an overview of the design of ideal biomimetic porous scaffolds is presented in this paper. Hence, a number of original engineering processes and techniques, including the production of a hierarchical structure on both the macro- and nano-scales, the adjustment of biomechanical properties through structural alignment and chemical components, the control of the biodegradability of the scaffold and its by-products, the change of biomimetic surface properties by altering interfacial chemistry, and micro- and nano-topographies will be discussed. In general, the concepts and techniques mentioned above provide insights into designing superior biomimetic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

Biomimetic porous scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

Sol-gel based materials for biomedical applications

/pdf/bioactive-glass-scaffolds-for-bone-tissue-engineering-state-3r0bji7k59.pdf

Bioactive glass scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: state of the art and future perspectives

This paper provides an extensive overview of published studies on the development and applications of three-dimensional bone tissue engineering (TE) scaffolds with potential capability for the controlled delivery of therapeutic drugs. Typical drugs considered include gentamicin and other antibiotics generally used to combat osteomyelitis, as well as anti-inflammatory drugs and bisphosphonates, but delivery of growth factors is not covered in this review. In each case reviewed, special attention has been given to the technology used for controlling the release of the loaded drugs. The possibility of designing multifunctional three-dimensional bone TE scaffolds for the emerging field of bone TE therapeutics is discussed. A detailed summary of drugs included in three-dimensional scaffolds and the several approaches developed to combine bioceramics with various polymeric biomaterials in composites for drug-delivery systems is included. The main results presented in the literature are discussed and the remaining challenges in the field are summarized with suggestions for future research directions.

/pdf/bone-tissue-engineering-therapeutics-controlled-drug-4jvg9tg5ay.pdf

Bone tissue engineering therapeutics: controlled drug delivery in three-dimensional scaffolds.

Single-piece prosthesis elements chosen from among acetabular cup for hip prosthesis, tibial component and femoral component for knee prosthesis, comprising a body ( 2 ) of ceramic material or ceramic matrix composite material, a bioactive porous coating ( 4 ) of glass material, glass-ceramic material or glass-ceramic matrix material applied to the surface of said body intended for anchoring with the bone tissue, where said bioactive porous coating ( 4 ) is anchored to the body surface ( 2 ) by means of a glass or glass-ceramic phase layer.

Monoblock ceramic prosthesis devices

Single-piece prosthesis elements chosen from among acetabular cup for hip prosthesis, tibial component and femoral component for knee prosthesis, comprising a body (2) of ceramic material or ceramic matrix composite material, a bioactive porous coating (4) of glass material, glass-ceramic material or glass-ceramic matrix material applied to the surface of said body intended for anchoring with the bone tissue, where said bioactive porous coating (4) is anchored to the body surface (2) by means of a glass or glass-ceramic phase layer.

Single-piece ceramic prosthesis elements

Development of glass-ceramic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: characterisation, proliferation of human osteoblasts and nodule formation.

A new bioactive glass composition (CEL2) in the SiO(2)-P(2)O(5)-CaO-MgO-K(2)O-Na(2)O system was tailored to control pH variations due to ion leaching phenomena when the glass is in contact with physiological fluids CEL2 was prepared by a traditional melting-quenching process obtaining slices that were heat-treated to obtain a glass-ceramic material (CEL2GC) that was characterized thorough SEM analysis Pre-treatment of CEL2GC with SBF was found to enhance its biocompatibility, as assessed by in vitro tests CEL2 powder was then used to synthesize macroporous glass-ceramic scaffolds To this end, CEL2 powders were mixed with polyethylene particles within the 300-600 microm size-range and then pressed to obtain crack-free compacted powders (green) This was heat-treated to remove the organic phase and to sinter the inorganic phase, leaving a porous structure The biomaterial thus obtained was characterized by X-ray diffraction, SEM equipped with EDS, density measurement, image analysis, mechanical testing and in vitro evaluation, and found to be a glass-ceramic macroporous scaffold with uniformly distributed and highly interconnected porosity The extent and size-range of the porosity can be tailored by varying the amount and size of the polyethylene particles

/pdf/biocompatible-glass-ceramic-materials-for-bone-substitution-5cibwmkfei.pdf

Biocompatible glass–ceramic materials for bone substitution

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Monoblock ceramic prosthesis devices

Single-piece ceramic prosthesis elements

Development of glass-ceramic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: characterisation, proliferation of human osteoblasts and nodule formation.

Biocompatible glass–ceramic materials for bone substitution