A classification scheme for the different forms of implant-related damage which arise upon annealing consisting of five categories is presented. Category I damage is “subthreshold” damage or that which results prior to the formation of an amorphous layer. If the dose is increased sufficiently to result in the formation of an amorphous layer then the defects which form beyond the amorphous/crystalline (a/c) interface are classified as category II (“end of range”) damage. Category III defects are associated with the solid phase epitaxial growth of the amorphous layer. The most common forms of this damage are microtwins, hairpin dislocations and segregation related defects. It is possible to produce a buried amorphous layer upon implantation, If this occurs, then the defects which form when the two a/c interfaces meet are termed category IV (“clamshell”, “zipper”) defects. Finally, category V defects arise from exceeding the solid solubility of the implanted species in the substrate at the annealing temperature. These defects are most often precipitates or dislocation loops.

A systematic analysis of defects in ion-implanted silicon

Depth distributions, measured by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), and carrier profiles, measured by differential capacitance‐voltage (C‐V) profiling, of boron and fluorine implanted as B, F, BF, or BF2 ions into random and channeling orientations of crystalline silicon, and into silicon amorphized by silicon ion implantation are reported. Low boron energies of 8 and 10 keV and the corresponding energies of 36 and 45 keV for BF2 ions are emphasized because of their use for high resolution device and circuit applications in silicon and silicon‐on‐sapphire. Amorphizing crystalline silicon prior to boron implantation eliminates the significant channeling tails on 8‐ or 10‐keV boron profiles. Fluorine penetrates more deeply into crystalline silicon than boron does. Both boron and fluorine redistribute during annealing at 925 °C/20 min for B, F, BF, or BF2 implants, but with quite different characteristics as illustrated, and depend on the implantation fluence (5×1014 and 2×1015 cm−2 reported here). The fluorine redistribution profiles are strongly influenced by the magnitude and distribution of damage that remains after annealing. Fair agreement is shown between boron atom depth distributions measured by SIMS and C‐V electrical profiles measured for a fluence of 1.5×1012 cm−2. Differential C‐V profiles indicate that the entire ion spectrum from BF3 can be implanted and electrically activated (for a fluence of 1.5×1012 cm−2), as can a BF2 implant. Implantation through a 20‐nm layer of SiO2 has no significant effect on the boron depth distribution in crystalline silicon. Pearson IV moments are given for the low energy boron profiles. The use of these profiles for modeling calculations is discussed. The suprem model of an exponential for the channeling tail of boron implants in crystalline silicon is fairly good for fluences greater than about 1015 cm−2, but poorer for lower fluences, but the slope and matching to the random portion of the profiles are difficult to predict. In order for modeling calculations to reasonably represent boron profiles, either the silicon substrate should be amorphized prior to boron implantation, or the modeling should be modified to use experimental data measured for the implant and silicon conditions.

Boron, fluorine, and carrier profiles for B and BF2 implants into crystalline and amorphous Si

Phase formation in the interfacial reactions of ultrahigh vacuum deposited Ti thin films on (111)Si has been studied by in situ reflected high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In situ RHEED and high resolution TEM data showed unambiguously that there is considerable intermixing of Ti and Si atoms during Ti deposition. Ti5Si3 was found to be the first nucleated phase followed by Ti5Si4 and TiSi. Ti5Si3, Ti5Si4, TiSi, and C49‐TiSi2 along with a‐interlayer were found to form in samples annealed at 475 °C for 30 and 60 min. Ti5Si4 was the first silicide phase to disappear followed by Ti5Si3 then TiSi. In samples annealed at 700 °C for 10 min, C54‐TiSi2 started to appear. To understand the thermodynamic origin of the phase formation, metastable free energy diagrams at 450–600 °C have been constructed. Ti5Si3 and C49‐TiSi2 were found to have the highest and lowest driving force, respectively. On the other hand, Ti5Si4 has the lowest interface energy. The sequence o...

Phase formation in the interfacial reactions of ultrahigh vacuum deposited titanium thin films on (111)Si

The growth kinetics of amorphous interlayer (a interlayerbb) in polycrystalline Ti films on single‐crystal‐silicon has been studied by cross‐sectional transmission electron microscopy. The growth was found to follow a linear growth law initially in samples annealed at 350–425 °C. The activation energy of the linear growth was measured to be 1.6±0.3 eV. Maximum thicknesses of the a interlayers were measured to be of the order of 10 nm. The formation of an a interlayer was observed in samples annealed at a temperature as high as 600 °C. The formation and growth kinetics of a interlayers in Ti/Si and Ni/Zr systems are compared. Essential factors for the formation and growth of an a interlayer are discussed. The results represent the first report on the growth kinetics of an a interlayer in metal thin films on single‐crystal silicon.

Growth kinetics of amorphous interlayer formed by interdiffusion of polycrystalline Ti thin‐film and single‐crystal silicon

The growth kinetics of an amorphous (a‐)interlayer in polycrystalline Zr and Hf thin films on (111)Si have been investigated by cross‐sectional transmission electron microscopy. The growth of the a‐interlayer in group‐IVb metals and silicon systems was found to exhibit similar behaviors. The growth was found to follow a linear growth law initially. The growth rate then slows down and deviates from a linear growth law as a critical thickness of the a‐interlayer was reached. Crystalline silicide (ZrSi or HfSi) was found to nucleate at the a‐interlayer/Si interface in samples after prolonged and/or high‐temperature annealing. Silicon atoms were found to be the dominant diffusing species during the formation of amorphous alloys. The activation energy of the linear growth and maximum thickness of the a‐interlayer were measured to be 1.4 eV, 17 nm and 1.2 eV, 27 nm in Zr/Si and Hf/Si systems, respectively. The correlations among the differences in atomic size between metal and Si atoms, growth rate and activation energy of the linear growth, critical and maximum a‐interlayer thickness, the largest heat of formation energy for crystalline silicides, the calculated free‐energy difference in forming amorphous phase, as well as the atomic mobility in Ti/Si, Zr/Si, and Hf/Si systems are discussed.

Growth kinetics of amorphous interlayers by solid-state diffusion in polycrystalline zr and hf thin films on (111)si

Sheet resistivities of post‐implantation annealed BF+2 ‐implanted silicon were measured by four‐point probe method as a function of implantation dose, annealing temperature, and time. The resistivities of the implanted layer were found to be lower for samples annealed at higher temperature as well as irradiated to higher dose. Detailed transmission electron microscope investigations were made for samples irradiated to 1×1014 cm−2. Disordered zones were found to transform to microscopic clusters and small Frank loops on {111} planes upon 600 °C annealing. The rodlike defects in samples annealed at 700–800 °C are identified to be elongated perfect dislocation loops lying on or near {111}, interstitial in nature, with Burgers vectors b = 1/2 〈110〉 perpendicular to their elongated directions. They disappeared upon 900 °C annealing. The dislocation loops that coexisted with the rodlike defects consisted of interstitial perfect prismatic loops and extrinsic Frank loops, mainly hexagonal or circular in shape. Th...

Sheet resistivity and transmission electron microscope investigations of BF+2 ‐implanted silicon

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Sheet resistivity and transmission electron microscope investigations of BF+2 ‐implanted silicon