Studies of early medieval weapon burials make surprisingly little mention of the material properties of the deposited weapons. How did these artefacts’ metallurgical properties, and people’s experiences making and shaping the materials from which they were made, relate to the social and ‘magical’ potential these weapons were ascribed? This article reassesses metallurgical data from fifty-two early Anglo-Saxon spearheads discovered in cemetery contexts, and 118 knives from cemeteries and settlements, and reinterprets their technological properties as a glimpse into the social experiences of their makers and users. The choices smiths made when forging these blades are visible in their surviving metallurgy, and reveal their makers’ desired outcomes — and their mixed results. The difficulties smiths negotiated while forging iron shaped the social biographies that blades accumulated after leaving the workshop. By studying the materials from which these artefacts were made, and the practices of the makers who s...

Encounters with Iron: An Archaeometallurgical Reassessment of Early Anglo-Saxon Spearheads and Knives

While cataloguing medieval and post-medieval militaria in the
collections of Czech and Moravian institutions, we have
succeeded in identifying a specific type of single-handed
dussacks dating back to the 15th and 16th c. A detailed
examination of these dussacks revealed very similar damage to
the blade. This fact inspired research into the production
technology of this type of weapons and a discussion of the
probable causes of their damage. This paper summarises the
findings of the research and the related archaeological data.

Dussack with broad blades and a probable method of their manufacturing

A Lombardic cemetery dating to the late Migration Period was excavated at Kyjov (Czech Republic) in 2010, and inter alia a warrior’s grave no.881, which had never been looted, was uncovered there. The burial included a sword, which was subjected to a detailed conservation survey and then to metallographic examination. Further technological information was obtained by the production of a replica of the sword. The weapon can be characterized as a pattern-welded sword, with cutting edges and an inner core of steel. Construction and heat treatment of the sword are discussed in a broader context of 5th–7th century swords and sword-making. Experimental reconstruction of the sword shows that historical pattern-welded composites reveal a clear pattern after being exposed to controlled corrosion in vinegar vapor.

Metallographic examination and reconstruction of the 6th century lombardic sword from Kyjov

A metallurgical and technological characterization of a seventh century seax coming from the Lombard necropolis of Campo San Giovanni in Leno (Brescia, northern Italy) was carried out to investigate the smithing technology involved in the blade manufacturing process. At first, a metric-based typological investigation of the seax was performed. X-ray radiography was used to gain a preliminary non-destructive technological assessment of the object. Optical microscopy and Vickers hardness measurements have allowed a metallurgical and mechanical characterization of the metal matrix both at the upper and lower blade portion. The results show that the seax blade was forged using different steel bars and also hypereutectoid steel. In addition, a selective quenching was performed by the ancient blacksmith to enhance the cutting-edge hardness. Scanning electron microscopy coupled with X-ray dispersive spectroscopy was employed to determine the chemistry of a large sample of nonmetallic inclusions entrapped within the metal matrix. A multivariate statistical analysis of the inclusions compositional data was used to carefully examine the composite nature of the artefact and trace the origin of the seax steel.

Metallurgical and Technological Characterization of a Lombard Seax from North Italy

Archeological excavation conducted in 2010 in Kobilic (Turopolje region, Zagreb County, Republic of Croatia) yielded two knives from which one shows pattern-welding. This is the first pattern-welde...

Metallographic examination of two medieval knives from Kobilić (Republic of Croatia)

Pattern-welding is a well-known technique that was widely employed in the manufacture of swords. While the decorative effect of genuine pattern-welding (employing phosphoric iron) is indisputable, to date its reinforcing effect is rather unclear. In order to understand this issue better, wrought iron, phosphoric iron, steel and various pattern-welded samples were prepared and mechanically tested, and the results obtained are discussed in detail. Both the mechanical testing and the long-term metallographic investigation of medieval swords suggest that pattern-welding does not have any significant positive effect on the mechanical properties of swords and we should consider it a primarily decorative technique.

The Role of Pattern‐Welding in Historical Swords—Mechanical Testing of Materials Used in Their Manufacture

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The Role of Pattern‐Welding in Historical Swords—Mechanical Testing of Materials Used in Their Manufacture