Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, has boomed over the last 30 years, and its use has accelerated during the last 5 years AM is a materials-oriented manufacturing technology, and printing resolution versus printing scalability/speed trade-off exists among various types of materials, including polymers, metals, ceramics, glasses, and composite materials Four-dimensional (4D) printing, together with versatile transformation systems, drives researchers to achieve and utilize high dimensional AM Multiple perspectives of the AM of structural materials have been raised and illustrated in this review, including multi-material AM (MMa-AM), multi-modulus AM (MMo-AM), multi-scale AM (MSc-AM), multi-system AM (MSy-AM), multi-dimensional AM (MD-AM), and multi-function AM (MF-AM) The rapid and tremendous development of AM materials and methods offers great potential for structural applications, such as in the aerospace field, the biomedical field, electronic devices, nuclear industry, flexible and wearable devices, soft sensors, actuators, and robotics, jewelry and art decorations, land transportation, underwater devices, and porous structures

Additive manufacturing of structural materials

Tissue engineering is a promising and revolutionary strategy to treat patients who suffer the loss or failure of an organ or tissue, with the aim to restore the dysfunctional tissues and enhance life expectancy. Supramolecular adhesive hydrogels are emerging as appealing materials for tissue engineering applications owing to their favorable attributes such as tailorable structure, inherent flexibility, excellent biocompatibility, near-physiological environment, dynamic mechanical strength, and particularly attractive self-adhesiveness. In this review, the key design principles and various supramolecular strategies to construct adhesive hydrogels are comprehensively summarized. Thereafter, the recent research progress regarding their tissue engineering applications, including primarily dermal tissue repair, muscle tissue repair, bone tissue repair, neural tissue repair, vascular tissue repair, oral tissue repair, corneal tissue repair, cardiac tissue repair, fetal membrane repair, hepatic tissue repair, and gastric tissue repair, is systematically highlighted. Finally, the scientific challenges and the remaining opportunities are underlined to show a full picture of the supramolecular adhesive hydrogels. This review is expected to offer comparative views and critical insights to inspire more advanced studies on supramolecular adhesive hydrogels and pave the way for different fields even beyond tissue engineering applications.

Supramolecular Adhesive Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering Applications.

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting strategies use computer-aided processes to enable automated simultaneous spatial patterning of cells and/or biomaterials. These technologies are suitable for a broad range of biomedical applications owing to their capability to produce structurally sophisticated and functionally relevant tissue constructs. Extrusion-based 3D bioprinting strategies were among the first modalities developed and are now arguably the most widely used for producing 3D tissue constructs. These technologies have rapidly evolved over the past two decades, providing a powerful tool set for the biofabrication of tissues that can facilitate translational efforts in the field. In this Primer, we describe the methodology of 3D extrusion bioprinting, focusing on the selection of hardware, software and bioinks. We expand upon recent advances in 3D extrusion bioprinting by illustrating the key variations that promote its biofabrication abilities. Finally, we provide an outlook on possible future refinements of the technology. 3D extrusion bioprinting methods can be used to produce tissue constructs in vitro and in situ and are arguably the most commonly used bioprinting strategies. In this Primer, Zhang and colleagues describe the variants of 3D extrusion bioprinting methods and their specific applications, considerations for the formulation of bioinks and strategies for assessing print quality. The authors conclude by looking to recent and upcoming developments in 4D printing and artificial intelligence-assisted dynamic printing strategies.

3D extrusion bioprinting

Extrusion bioprinting: Recent progress, challenges, and future opportunities

Hydrogel adhesion inherently relies on engineering the contact surface at soft and hydrated interfaces. Upon contact, adhesion normally occurs through the formation of chemical or physical interactions between the disparate surfaces. The ability to form these adhesion junctions is challenging for hydrogels as the interfaces are wet and deformable and often contain low densities of functional groups. In this Review, we link the design of the binding chemistries or adhesion junctions, whether covalent, dynamic covalent, supramolecular, or physical, to the emergent adhesive properties of soft and hydrated interfaces. Wet adhesion is useful for bonding to or between tissues and implants for a range of biomedical applications. We highlight several recent and emerging adhesive hydrogels for use in biomedicine in the context of efficient junction design. The main focus is on engineering hydrogel adhesion through molecular design of the junctions to tailor the adhesion strength, reversibility, stability, and response to environmental stimuli.

Engineering Hydrogel Adhesion for Biomedical Applications via Chemical Design of the Junction

Reconstructive surgery remains inadequate for the treatment of volumetric muscle loss (VML). The geometry of skeletal muscle defects in VML injuries varies on a case-by-case basis. Three-dimensiona...

In Situ Printing of Adhesive Hydrogel Scaffolds for the Treatment of Skeletal Muscle Injuries

The ability of skeletal muscle to regenerate declines significantly with aging. The expression of aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT), a critical component of the hypoxia signaling pathway, was less abundant in skeletal muscle of old (23-25 months old) mice. This loss of ARNT was associated with decreased levels of Notch1 intracellular domain (N1ICD) and impaired regenerative response to injury in comparison to young (2-3 months old) mice. Knockdown of ARNT in a primary muscle cell line impaired differentiation in vitro. Skeletal muscle-specific ARNT deletion in young mice resulted in decreased levels of whole muscle N1ICD and limited muscle regeneration. Administration of a systemic hypoxia pathway activator (ML228), which simulates the actions of ARNT, rescued skeletal muscle regeneration in both old and ARNT-deleted mice. These results suggest that the loss of ARNT in skeletal muscle is partially responsible for diminished myogenic potential in aging and activation of hypoxia signaling holds promise for rescuing regenerative activity in old muscle.

https://faseb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1096/fj.202000761RR

Loss of ARNT in skeletal muscle limits muscle regeneration in aging.

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In Situ Printing of Adhesive Hydrogel Scaffolds for the Treatment of Skeletal Muscle Injuries

Loss of ARNT in skeletal muscle limits muscle regeneration in aging.