The great advances made in the wireless technology have enabled the deployment of wireless communication networks in some of the harshest environments such as volcanoes, hurricane-affected regions, and underground mines. In such challenging environments suffering from the lack of infrastructure, traditional routing is not efficient and sometimes not even feasible. Moreover, the exponential growth of the number of wireless connected devices has created the need for a new routing paradigm that could benefit from the potentials offered by these heterogeneous wireless devices. Hence, in order to overcome the traditional routing limitations, and to increase the capacity of current dynamic heterogeneous wireless networks, the opportunistic routing paradigm has been proposed and developed in recent research works. Motivated by the great interest that has been attributed to this new paradigm within the last decade, we provide a comprehensive survey of the existing literature related to opportunistic routing. We first study the main design building blocks of opportunistic routing. Then, we provide a taxonomy for opportunistic routing proposals, based on their routing objectives as well as the optimization tools and approaches used in the routing design. Hence, five opportunistic routing classes are defined and studied in this paper, namely, geographic opportunistic routing, link-state-aware opportunistic routing, probabilistic opportunistic routing, optimization-based opportunistic routing, and cross-layer opportunistic routing. We also review the main protocols proposed in the literature for each class. Finally, we identify and discuss the main future research directions related to the opportunistic routing design, optimization, and deployment.

A Survey on Opportunistic Routing in Wireless Communication Networks

In the problem of routing in multi-hop wireless networks, to achieve high end-to-end throughput, it is crucial to find the “best” path from the source node to the destination node. Although a large number of routing protocols have been proposed to find the path with minimum total transmission count/time for delivering a single packet, such transmission count/time minimizing protocols cannot be guaranteed to achieve maximum end-to-end throughput. In this paper, we argue that by carefully considering spatial reusability of the wireless communication media, we can tremendously improve the end-to-end throughput in multi-hop wireless networks. To support our argument, we propose spatial reusability-aware single-path routing (SASR) and anypath routing (SAAR) protocols, and compare them with existing single-path routing and anypath routing protocols, respectively. Our evaluation results show that our protocols significantly improve the end-to-end throughput compared with existing protocols. Specifically, for single-path routing, the median throughput gain is up to 60 percent, and for each source-destination pair, the throughput gain is as high as $5.3\times$ ; for anypath routing, the maximum per-flow throughput gain is 71.6 percent, while the median gain is up to 13.2 percent.

/pdf/spatial-reusability-aware-routing-in-multi-hop-wireless-jhpm5kmumz.pdf

Spatial Reusability-Aware Routing in Multi-Hop Wireless Networks

In this paper, we present a new routing paradigm that generalizes opportunistic routing in wireless mesh networks. In multirate anypath routing, each node uses both a set of next hops and a selected transmission rate to reach a destination. Using this rate, a packet is broadcast to the nodes in the set and one of them forwards the packet on to the destination. To date, there is no theory capable of jointly optimizing both the set of next hops and the transmission rate used by each node. We bridge this gap by introducing a polynomial-time algorithm to this problem and provide the proof of its optimality. The proposed algorithm runs in the same running time as regular shortest-path algorithms and is therefore suitable for deployment in link-state routing protocols. We conducted experiments in a 802.11b testbed network, and our results show that multirate anypath routing performs on average 80% and up to 6.4 times better than anypath routing with a fixed rate of 11 Mbps. If the rate is fixed at 1 Mbps instead, performance improves by up to one order of magnitude. I. INTRODUCTION The high loss rate and dynamic quality of links make routing in wireless mesh networks extremely challenging (1). Anypath routing 1 has been recently proposed as a way to circumvent these shortcomings by using multiple next hops for each destination (3)-(6). Each packet is broadcast to a forwarding set composed of several neighbors, and the packet must be retransmitted only if none of the neighbors in the set receive it. Therefore, while the link to a given neighbor is down or performing poorly, another nearby neighbor may receive the packet and forward it on. This is in contrast to single-path routing where only one neighbor is assigned as the next hop for each destination. In this case, if the link to this neighbor is not performing well, a packet may be lost even though other neighbors may have overheard it. Existing work on anypath routing has focused on wireless networks that use a single transmission rate. This approach, albeit straightforward, presents two major drawbacks. First, using a single rate over the entire network underutilizes available bandwidth resources. Some links may perform well at a higher rate, while others may only work at a lower rate. Secondly and most importantly, the network may become disconnected at a higher bit rate. We provide experimental measurements from a 802.11b testbed which show that this phenomenon is not uncommon in practice. The key problem is that higher transmission rates have a shorter radio range, which reduces network density and connectivity. As the bit rate in- creases, links becomes lossier and the network eventually gets disconnected. Therefore, in order to guarantee connectivity, single-rate anypath routing must be limited to low rates. In multirate anypath routing, these problems do not exist; however, we face different challenges. First, we must find 1 We use the term anypath rather than opportunistic routing, since oppor- tunistic routing is an overloaded term also used for opportunistic contacts (2).

/pdf/multirate-anypath-routing-in-wireless-mesh-networks-sgbgkp0xp0.pdf

Multirate Anypath Routing in Wireless Mesh Networks

In urban vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs), due to the high mobility and uneven distribution of vehicles, how to select an optimal relaying node in an intra-street and how to determine a street selection at the intersection are two challenging issues in designing an efficient routing protocol in complex urban environments. In this paper, we build a link model with a Wiener process to predict the probability of link availability, which considers the stable and unstable vehicle states according to the behavior of vehicles. We introduce a novel concept called the link correlation which represents the influence of different link combinations in network topology to transmit a packet with less network resource consumption and higher goodput. Based on this concept, we design an opportunistic routing metric called the expected transmission cost over a multi-hop path (ETCoP) implemented with our link model as the selection guidance of a relaying node in intra-streets. This metric can also provide assistance for the next street selection at an intersection. Finally, we propose a street-centric opportunistic routing protocol based on ETCoP for VANETs (SRPE). Simulation results show that our proposed SRPE outperforms the conventional protocols in terms of packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay, and network yield.

A Street-Centric Opportunistic Routing Protocol Based on Link Correlation for Urban VANETs

In many networks, it is less costly to transmit a packet to any node in a set of neighbors than to one specific neighbor. This observation was previously exploited by opportunistic routing protocols by using single-path routing metrics to assign to each node a group of candidate relays for a particular destination. This paper addresses the least-cost anypath routing (LCAR) problem: how to assign a set of candidate relays at each node for a given destination such that the expected cost of forwarding a packet to the destination is minimized. The key is the following tradeoff: On one hand, increasing the number of candidate relays decreases the forwarding cost, but on the other, it increases the likelihood of "veering" away from the shortest-path route. Prior proposals based on single-path routing metrics or geographic coordinates do not explicitly consider this tradeoff and, as a result, do not always make optimal choices. The LCAR algorithm and its framework are general and can be applied to a variety of networks and cost models. We show how LCAR can incorporate different aspects of underlying coordination protocols, for example a link-layer protocol that randomly selects which receiving node will forward a packet, or the possibility that multiple nodes mistakenly forward a packet. In either case, the LCAR algorithm finds the optimal choice of candidate relays that takes into account these properties of the link layer. Finally, we apply LCAR to low-power, low-rate wireless communication and introduce a new wireless link-layer technique to decrease energy transmission costs in conjunction with anypath routing. Simulations show significant reductions in transmission cost to opportunistic routing using single-path metrics. Furthermore, LCAR routes are more robust and stable than those based on single-path distances due to the integrative nature of the LCAR's route cost metric.

/pdf/valuable-detours-least-cost-anypath-routing-3hfu1q4s8k.pdf

Valuable detours: least-cost anypath routing

/pdf/multirate-anypath-routing-in-wireless-mesh-networks-9rtz4nwuk8.pdf

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Multirate Anypath Routing in Wireless Mesh Networks