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Effect sizes are the most important outcome of empirical studies. Most articles on effect sizes highlight their importance to communicate the practical significance of results. For scientists themselves, effect sizes are most useful because they facilitate cumulative science. Effect sizes can be used to determine the sample size for follow-up studies, or examining effects across studies. This article aims to provide a practical primer on how to calculate and report effect sizes for t-tests and ANOVA’s such that effect sizes can be used in a-priori power analyses and meta-analyses. Whereas many articles about effect sizes focus on between-subjects designs and address within-subjects designs only briefly, I provide a detailed overview of the similarities and differences between within- and between-subjects designs. I suggest that some research questions in experimental psychology examine inherently intra-individual effects, which makes effect sizes that incorporate the correlation between measures the best summary of the results. Finally, a supplementary spreadsheet is provided to make it as easy as possible for researchers to incorporate effect size calculations into their workflow.

/pdf/calculating-and-reporting-effect-sizes-to-facilitate-4a429kama3.pdf

Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: a practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs

People are capable of thinking about the future, the past, remote locations, another person's perspective, and counterfactual alternatives. Without denying the uniqueness of each process, it is proposed that they constitute different forms of traversing psychological distance. Psychological distance is egocentric: Its reference point is the self in the here and now, and the different ways in which an object might be removed from that point-in time, in space, in social distance, and in hypotheticality-constitute different distance dimensions. Transcending the self in the here and now entails mental construal, and the farther removed an object is from direct experience, the higher (more abstract) the level of construal of that object. Supporting this analysis, research shows (a) that the various distances are cognitively related to each other, (b) that they similarly influence and are influenced by level of mental construal, and (c) that they similarly affect prediction, preference, and action.

/pdf/construal-level-theory-of-psychological-distance-g5kjiydrew.pdf

Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance

Vertical scales are intended to allow longitudinal interpretations of student change over time, but several deficiencies of vertical scales call their use into question. Deficiencies of vertical scales are discussed and growth scales, a criterion-referenced alternative, are described. Some considerations in developing and using growth scales are suggested. Student growth models depend on comparing assessments of individual students over time.

/pdf/an-overview-of-content-analysis-53zvb3be0k.pdf

An Overview of Content Analysis.

Evidence for the role of affective states in social judgments is reviewed, and a new integrative theory, the affect infusion model (AIM), is proposed as a comprehensive explanation of these effects. The AIM, based on a multiprocess approach to social judgments, identifies 4 alternative judgmental strategies: (a) direct access, (b) motivated, (c) heuristic, and (d) substantive processing. The model predicts that the degree of affect infusion into judgments varies along a processing continuum, such that judgments requiring heuristic or substantive processing are more likely to be infused by affect than are direct access or motivated judgments. The role of target, judge, and situational variables in recruiting high- or low-infusion judgmental strategies is considered, and empirical support for the model is reviewed. The relationship between the AIM and other affect-cognition theories is discussed, and implications for future research are outlined.

Mood and judgment: the affect infusion model (AIM).

PART ONE: GENERAL FRAMEWORKS IN APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Attitudes and Behaviour - Antony S R Manstead Judgement and Decision-Making - Joop van der Pligt Survey Research - Norbert Schwarz Collecting Data by Asking Questions Language in Applied Contexts - Klaus Fiedler and G[um]un R Semin PART TWO: FOCAL BEHAVIOUR DOMAINS Health-Impairing Behaviours - Wolfgang Stroebe and John de Wit The Social Psychology of Economic and Consumer Behaviour - Helga Dittmar Social Psychology and Environmental Issues - Joop van der Pligt The Social Psychology of Driver Behaviour - Dianne Parker and Antony S R Manstead PART THREE: THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Social Psychology and Organizations - John L Michela Social Psychology and the Law - G[um]unter K[um]ohnken Political Psychology - Patrizia Catellani Social Psychology and the Media - Harald G Wallbott PART FOUR: THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF SOCIETAL ISSUES Aggression and Violence in Society - Barbara Krah[ac]e Social Construction and Old Age - Jutta Heckhausen and Frieder R Lang Normative Conceptions and Interpersonal Processes Culture and Migration - G[um]unter Bierbrauer and Paul Pedersen

Applied Social Psychology

We introduce a heuristic called pseudocontingencies (PCs) as an alternative account of various stereotyping phenomena. PCs give rise to the expectation that attributes are correlated based solely o...

Stereotypes as Pseudocontingencies

Different adaptive styles characterize cognition and behavior in different affective states. Whereas negative affect supports accommodation (i.e., stimulus-driven bottom-up processing), positive affect supports assimilation (i.e., self-determined top-down processing). Applying this well-established rule to binary choices after self-truncated information sampling, we predicted that positive mood should render choices less dependent on large samples than negative mood. Consequently, the potential primacy advantage underlying Wald's (1947) sequential testing (i.e., quick and correct decisions from the first few items in a sample) was exploited more efficiently when participants were in positive rather than negative mood. This efficient utilization of small samples in positive mood was obtained under the very conditions derived on a priori ground from a statistical model, namely, when a response criterion or threshold was high and when the true difference between choice options was relatively small. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Mood and judgments based on sequential sampling

[...from the chapter] The probabilistic mind has to mirror the structure of the probabilistic world. Because the mind reflects the environment, the topic of the present volume should not be misunderstood as referring only to intrapsychic processes within individual organisms' brains or minds. Rather, the 'probabilistic mind' refers to the adaptive match between cognitive functions and environmental tasks and affordances. Studying the probabilistic mind calls for a cognitive-ecological approach that relates mental functions to environmental structures, rather than a purely cognitive approach that relates individual mental functions to micro-level intrapsychic processes, such as neuronal processes. In this respect, the cognitive-ecological perspective that guides the present article, and most other articles in the present book, may be conceived as complementary to a neuro-scientific approach to the human mind. The cognitive illusion that is in the focus of the present chapter – called pseudocontingencies – highlights the need to study the top-down constraints imposed by the environment on cognitive behavior, which are quite distinct from the bottom-up constraints of internal neuronal processes.

Pseudocontingencies - a key paradigm for understanding adaptive cognition

Information ecology and the explanation of social cognition and behavior.

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