Livestock production systems, production objectives, the cultural values of livestock keepers, and the close relationship between keepers and their livestock have evolved over the years and have influenced the quality of animal welfare in Africa. An equivalent level and quality of care is not evident for companion animals, especially dogs and donkeys, who are often mistreated and physically abused. In the densely populated highland and humid coastal belts of Africa, profit-driven commercial large-scale intensive livestock production systems predominate. As the main production objective of these operations is to maximise profit, the operators of these production systems do not exhibit the same kind of attachment to their livestock as traditional farmers. In some large-scale commercial systems animals and birds are kept in sub-standard poorly constructed structures that greatly restrict the animals' movements. In Africa, conservation of wildlife habitats is part of animal welfare, but due to an increasing human population and a greater demand for land for grazing, cultivation, and housing, wildlife reserves are quickly diminishing. This essentially means that the land that was previously set aside for wildlife and forests is being encroached upon and previously unsettled plains and marginal lands are being used for agriculture and mining. In most places there is significant conflict between humans and wildlife, such that wildlife are considered to be pests that need to be destroyed. This is a particular problem in areas where wildlife have destroyed crops, attacked man and/or livestock, or there has been disease transmission between animals and humans. In situations and/or areas that do not have official animal control services, crude weapons, poisons, and traps are used to kill the wildlife. Animal welfare issues, domestic and wildlife related, need to be urgently addressed through policy and legal frameworks and supported by community awareness of, education about, and participation in, animal welfare issues.

Global perspectives on animal welfare: Africa.

Local knowledge, which refers to a social activity that has been set up primarily as a result of local initiative, or techniques that are endogenously generated, enforced and maintained has not been mainstreamed in rangeland development programmes in the region. This paradigm unfortunately overlooks the fact that local knowledge and experiences form the basis for locallevel decision making in natural resource management. Recently there has been increasing interest and understanding of traditional knowledge systems in the fields of ethno-veterinary medicine but not so in natural resource management. Consequently, the ecological integrity of the rangelands is deteriorated because of increasing population growth, cultivation, overstocking, felling of trees, and other unsustainable resource utilization methods. In recognition of the role of traditional knowledge in natural resource management and sustainable development, case studies were conducted to document the traditional methods used to assess and monitor the condition and trend of grazing lands in East Africa by the Pokot and Il Chamus of Kenya, the Barabaig and Maasai of Tanzania, and the Bahima and Ateso of Uganda. The results of this study support the theory of the existence of complementary relationships between traditional techniques and modern scientific knowledge.

Indigenous techniques for assessing and monitoring range resources in East Africa

Male breeding soundness examination (BSE) is an important component of sheep and goat farming. BSE is best performed 2 months before the breeding season and is based on clinical and physical examination as well as sperm abnormalities detection. Rams are classified based on physical examination and semen evaluation finding in one of 4 categories: Unsatisfactory, questionable, satisfactory, and excellent. The satisfactory rams will achieve good reproductive performance if joined to ewes at a ratio of 1:50 for 60 days. However exceptional rams are expected to achieve good reproductive performance at a ratio of 1 ram to 100 ewes. For Buck, scrotal circumference should be at least 25 cm for breeds weighing more than 40 kg. Buck is deemed satisfactory breeder if he passes the physical examination, and has an ejaculate with at least 50% progressively motile spermatozoa and less than 30% total sperm abnormalities. This paper reviews factors affecting fertility, sperm production and quality as well as libido and mating ability in the ram. Details of genital examination and semen evaluation and interpretation of results are discussed. Classification of rams according to their reproductive potential is presented. Specific recommendations, when available for the buck, are highlighted. The main genital diseases are presented. The most frequent culling reason for ram is epididymitis due to Brucella ovis . Systematic culling of rams with epididymitis improves flock lambing rates by 10 to 15%. Overall, the examination of the reproductive capacity in the ram and the buck is an important tool for improvement of flocks/herds fertility and prevention of contagious or hereditary diseases. Keywords: Genital diseases, fertility, sheep, goat Examen de l’aptitude a la reproduction chez le belier et le bouc Resume L’examen de l’aptitude a la reproduction (EAR) du mâle est une composante importante de l’elevage des petits ruminants. L’EAR est mieux realisee 2 mois avant la saison de reproduction. Il est base sur l’examen clinique et physique ainsi que sur la detection des anomalies des spermatozoides. En considerant les resultats de cet examen, les beliers sont classes en 4 categories : Insatisfaisant, douteux, satisfaisant et excellent. Les beliers satisfaisants permettront d’obtenir de bonnes performances de reproduction s’ils sont mis pendant 60 jours pour saillir des brebis au ratio de 1:50. Cependant, des beliers exceptionnels peuvent realiser une bonne performance reproductive au ratio de 1 belier pour 100 brebis. Chez le bouc, la circonference scrotale doit etre d’au moins 25 cm pour les races pesant plus de 40 kg. Il est considere comme satisfaisant s’il passe l’examen physique et produit un ejaculat avec au moins 50% de spermatozoides progressivement mobiles et moins de 30% d’anomalies totales des spermatozoides. Cet article examine les facteurs affectant la fertilite, la production et la qualite du sperme ainsi que la libido et la capacite de saillie chez le belier. Les details de l’examen de l’appareil genital et du sperme et l’interpretation des resultats sont traites. La classification des beliers selon leur potentiel de reproduction est presentee. Des recommandations specifiques, lorsqu’elles sont disponibles pour le bouc, sont mises en evidence. Les principales maladies genitales sont traitees. La cause de reforme la plus frequente chez le belier est l’epididymite a Brucella ovis . La reforme systematique des beliers a epididymite ameliore les taux d’agnelage des troupeaux de 10 a 15%. Globalement, l’examen de l’aptitude de reproduction chez le belier et le bouc est un outil important pour l’amelioration de la fertilite des troupeaux et la prevention des maladies contagieuses ou hereditaires. Mots-cles: Reproduction, maladies genitales, fertilite, belier, bouc

Ram and Buck Breeding Soundness Examination

Nine groups of four 18- to 24-month-old rams were inoculated with Actinobacillus seminis by the following routes: intraconjunctival, intranasal, oral, intravenous, intramuscular, intraepididymal, vas deferens, intraurethral or intrapreputial. Eight similar rams were left uninoculated as controls. Systemic clinical signs were minimal and were confined primarily to the inoculation sites and the scrotal contents. Mild to severe epididymitis resulted from all the routes of inoculation except intraconjunctival and intranasal. Direct inoculation into the genital tract, especially into the cauda epididymis, was more effective. Intrapreputial and intraurethral inoculation led to ascending urethral infection, and inoculation into the vas deferens resulted primarily in descending infection of the accessory sex glands. A seminis was isolated from 11 of the 36 test rams (30.6 per cent); 26 of the 36 rams, some from each of the test groups except those inoculated intravenously, reacted serologically.

Experimental transmission of Actinobacillus seminis infection to rams.

Actinobacillus seminis infection in rams constitutes a spectrum of pathological changes in various genital organs, with a predilection for the cauda epididymis. There is a need to understand the disease, as it represents a significant factor contributing to infertility and sterility. Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the biological characteristics of A. seminis, modes of transmission, epidemiology and pathogenesis, clinical signs and pathological changes of the disease, the laboratory techniques that have been used in diagnosis, differential diagnosis, treatment and prevention, and the considerations that need to be taken into account for future research.

Ovine genital actinobacillosis: a review.

Actinobacillus seminis as a cause of ram infertility in Kenya

Abstract An outbreak of epididymitis and orchitis associated with Actinobacillus seminis infection is reported. In the outbreak, both young unmated rams and mature breeding rams were affected. Infected rams were found to have abscessed testes and epididymi and semen of poor quality when compared with uninfected rams. Testicular and epididymal lesions in affected rams were similar to those observed in cases of brucellosis. While no other body systems were observed to be affected by the disease, severe losses may be incurred by farmers through the loss of breeding rams. Infection by A. seminis should be considered as a differential diagnosis in cases of epididymitis and orchitis in Kenya.

Actinobacillus seminis as a cause of ram infertility in Kenya. Small Ruminant Research J., 21: 227 - 231.

Indigenous Knowledge And The Use Of Medicinal Plants Ethnoveterinary Practices) In Small Ruminant Theriogenology Reproduction/obstetrics) In Arid And Semi Arid Areas Of Kenya.

Reproductive efficiency of indigenous goats in Kenya: Slaughterhouse and field surveys .

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Actinobacillus seminis as a cause of ram infertility in Kenya

Actinobacillus seminis as a cause of ram infertility in Kenya. Small Ruminant Research J., 21: 227 - 231.

Indigenous Knowledge And The Use Of Medicinal Plants Ethnoveterinary Practices) In Small Ruminant Theriogenology Reproduction/obstetrics) In Arid And Semi Arid Areas Of Kenya.

Reproductive efficiency of indigenous goats in Kenya: Slaughterhouse and field surveys .