The Social Psychology of Organizations.

The constructs of horizontal (H) and vertical (V) individualism (I) and collectivism (C) were theoretically defined and empirically supported. Study 1 confirmed, via factor analysis, that the 4 constructs, HI, VI, HC, and VC, which were previously found in the United States, which has an individualist culture, also were found in Korea, which has a collectivist culture. Study 2 investigated multimethod-multitrait matrices measuring the constructs and generally supported their convergent and divergent validity. Study 3 showed how these 4 constructs relate to previously identified components by H. C. Triandis and colleagues. Study 4 showed the relationships of the measurement of the 4 constructs to some of the measures used by other researchers.

Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism

Social Psychology of Organizations

The stereotype content model (SCM) defines two fundamental dimensions of social perception, warmth and competence, predicted respectively by perceived competition and status. Combinations of warmth and competence generate distinct emotions of admiration, contempt, envy, and pity. From these intergroup emotions and stereotypes, the behavior from intergroup affect and stereotypes (BIAS) map predicts distinct behaviors: active and passive, facilitative and harmful. After defining warmth/communion and competence/agency, the chapter integrates converging work documenting the centrality of these dimensions in interpersonal as well as intergroup perception. Structural origins of warmth and competence perceptions result from competitors judged as not warm, and allies judged as warm; high status confers competence and low status incompetence. Warmth and competence judgments support systematic patterns of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions, including ambivalent prejudices. Past views of prejudice as a univalent antipathy have obscured the unique responses toward groups stereotyped as competent but not warm or warm but not competent. Finally, the chapter addresses unresolved issues and future research directions.

Warmth and Competence As Universal Dimensions of Social Perception: The Stereotype Content Model and the BIAS Map

The authors argue that attribution patterns reflect implicit theories acquired from induction and socialization and hence differentially distributed across human cultures. In particular, the authors tested the hypothesis that dispositionalism in attribution for behavior reflects a theory of social behavior more widespread in individualist than collectivist cultures

/pdf/culture-and-cause-american-and-chinese-attributions-for-4iumbbx7h2.pdf

Culture and Cause: American and Chinese Attributions for Social and Physical Events

In individualistic English-speaking cultures such as Australia, the United Kingdom, or the United States, attitudes and behaviours are often believed to be consistent. By contrast, in the Japanese culture, people may be primarily conceptualized as embedded within social contexts; the belief in consistency between attitudes and behaviour (the ABC belief) may be less strong and behaviours seen to be less consistent with attitudes. In this paper, we report two studies designed to examine the hypothesis that the strength of ABC beliefs underlies inferences in attributions of behaviour to attitudes. In Study 1, the relation of ABC beliefs to attitude attributions was examined in a sample of Australian undergraduate students. In Study 2, ABC beliefs and attitude attributions were compared in Australia and in Japan. As predicted, the ABC beliefs of Australians were related to the extremity of attributions for unconstrained behaviours and the Australians had stronger ABC beliefs than the Japanese. The results are discussed in relation to global cultural dimensions of individualism and collectivism.

Do people believe behaviours are consistent with attitudes? Towards a cultural psychology of attribution processes.

In two studies of Japanese and Australian university students, we examined the resource allocation rules of equity and quality. In both cultures, subjects were universalistic rather than relativistic in their judgments of fairness and alterability of these rules in the work place. The y judged the equity rule to be unalterable by legislation or consensus. However, in both studies, the Japanese perceived equity to be less fair and equality to be less unfair than their Australian counterparts. In addition, study 2 indicated that cross-cultural differences in judgments of fairness were influenced by consideration of need. The age of the worker was a more important determinant of fairness judgments for Japanese than for Australians; the debt of a worker was a more impoht determinaat for Australians than for Japanese. The results are discussed with regard to the role of culture in conceptions of distributive justice.

Universalism in Lay Conceptions of Distributive Justice: A Cross-Cultural Examination

This paper first provides an overview of trends in recent research on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), OCB classifications and similar concepts, and the influence that OCB has on workplaces, and then recognizes the positive effect that OCB has on employees and organizations as a whole. The number of academic articles concerning OCB is steadily increasing. This paper notes that contextual performance, service-oriented behaviors, and innovation-promotive behaviors are concepts similar to OCB. It confirms that the positive influences of OCB extend not only to the behaviors of individual employees but also to the overall performance of the organization. It then mentions the environment surrounding contemporary workplaces in Japan, and points out that the manifestation of OCB has been negatively influenced by the performance-based pay systems that many Japanese corporations have adopted since the 1990s. It further notes the possibility that OCB will not take place under performance-based pay systems because employees tend to focus on their own performance. Finally, it discusses HRM strategies for the future under which OCB will be promoted in Japanese workplaces. The author presents “security of justice” in the organization and heightening employees’ empowerment as key measures.

/pdf/organizational-citizenship-behavior-in-contemporary-gzkb6g4gag.pdf

Organizational citizenship behavior in contemporary workplaces in Japan

Experiment 1 was a Japanese replication of the studies reported by Messicket al. (1985) and Liebrandet al. (1986). Subjects were asked to write down fair or unfair behaviors that they or others did, giving as many examples as possible in 5 min. As in the previous studies, the subjects began more fair behaviors with the word “I” than with “others.” Likewise, they began more unfair behaviors with the word “others” than with “I.” In Experiment 2, 80 examples of behaviors (40 fair and 40 unfair) were selected randomly from the results of Experiment 1. The difference between the number of frequent behaviors sorted into the “fair/I” category and that sorted into the “unfair/I” category was greater than that between the number of behaviors sorted into the “fair/others” and that sorted to be “unfair/others.” Salient behaviors were more likely to be sorted into the category of “unfair” than into “fair,” and more likely to be sorted into “others” than “I.” On the whole, the egocentric bias of fairness was confirmed in Japan as well as in the Netherlands and the United States. However, in both experiments, gender differences were found; women, compared to men, recalled more others' behavior than their own and were likely to attribute fair and/or unfair behavior to others rather than to themselves.

Egocentric bias in perceived fairness: Is it observed in Japan?

The influence of gender harassment of working women on mental health

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