In this report we describe the concept of the proximity compatibility principle (PCP) and demonstrate its relevance to display design: Displays relevant to a common task or mental operation (close task or mental proximity) should be rendered close together in perceptual space (close display proximity). Different forms of task proximity are discussed, as are the different information-processing mechanisms that underlie the effects of the several different design manipulations of display proximity. Experimental data that support this process-based elaboration of PCP are then reviewed in design contexts relating to aviation, graphs, display layout, and decision aiding.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1518/001872095779049408

The Proximity Compatibility Principle: Its Psychological Foundation and Relevance to Display Design

Information on knowledge elicitation methods is widely scattered across the fields of psychology, business management, education, counseling, cognitive science, linguistics, philosophy, knowledge engineering and anthropology. The purpose of this review is to (1) identify knowledge elicitation techniques and the associated bibliographic information, (2) organize the techniques into categories on the basis of methodological similarity, and (3) summarize for each category of techniques strengths, weaknesses, and recommended applications. The review is intended to provide a starting point for those interested in applying or developing knowledge elicitation techniques, as well as for those more generally interested in exploring the scope of the available methodology.

Varieties of knowledge elicitation techniques

The ability to accurately estimate distance is an essential component of navigating large-scale spaces. Although the factors that influence distance estimation have been a topic of research in real-world environments for decades and are well known, research on distance estimation in virtual environments (VEs) has only just begun. Initial investigations of distance estimation in VEs suggest that observers are less accurate in estimating distance in VEs than in the real world (Lampton et al., 1995). Factors influencing distance estimates may be divided into those affecting perceived distance (visual cues only) and those affecting traversed distance to include visual, cognitive, and proprioceptive cues. To assess the contribution of the various distance cues in VEs, two experiments were conducted. The first required a static observer to estimate the distance to a cylinder placed at various points along a 130-foot hallway. This experiment examined the effects of floor texture, floor pattern, and object size on distance estimates in a VE. The second experiment required a moving observer to estimate route segment distances and total route distances along four routes, each totaling 1210 feet. This experiment assessed the effects of movement method, movement speed, compensatory cues, and wall texture density. Results indicate that observers underestimate distances both in VEs and in the real world, but the underestimates are more extreme in VEs. Texture did not reliably affect the distance estimates, providing no compensation for the gross underestimates of distance in VE. Traversing a distance improves the ability to estimate that distance, but more natural means of moving via a treadmill do not necessarily improve distance estimates over traditional methods of moving in VE (e.g., using a joystick). The addition of compensatory cues (tone every 10 feet traversed on alternate route segments) improves VE distance estimation to almost perfect performance.

Judging Perceived and Traversed Distance in Virtual Environments

Human-computer interaction (HCI) investigators must consider the sequential nature of interaction and must often weigh behavioral, cognitive, and social factors when studying and designing today's increasingly complex systems. In many cases, laboratory experimentation is inappropriate and formal modeling intractable; instead, observational data analysis is frequently the only appropriate empirical approach. Diverse approaches to observational data analysis already exist, which we synthesize as instances of exploratory sequential data analysis (ESDA). In this article, we outline fundamental ESDA characteristics that might help HCI investigators using sequential data make better conceptual and methodological choices. ESDA owes a philosophical debt to exploratory data analysis but focuses on exploring sequential data. Important issues for ESDA are finding an appropriate temporal band for analysis, finding an effective semantics for encoding, and completing an analysis in an acceptable time frame. We survey temporal factors and introduce analysis time: sequence time ratios, which describe the time cost of conducting different types of ESDA. We also introduce the "Eight Cs"-different general transformations that can be performed on sequential data. We conjecture that the Eight Cs, and their combinations, are critical for supporting scientific inference in ESDA. Distinctions are made among three principal ESDA traditions that are relevant for HCI-behavioral, cognitive, and social. We indicate how each ESDA tradition has been used in HCI and describe one technique from each tradition. Last, we outline major practical problems for investigators using observational data and, following our framework, suggest ways such problems might be overcome.

Exploratory sequential data analysis: foundations

We explore the use of the non-dominant hand to control a virtual camera while the dominant hand performs other tasks in a virtual 3D scene. Two experiments and an informal study are presented which evaluate this interaction style by comparing it to the status-quo unimanual interaction. In the first experiment, we find that for a target selection task, performance using the bimanual technique was 20% faster. Experiment 2 compared performance in a more complicated object docking task. Performance advantages are shown, however, only after practice. Free-form 3D painting was explored in the user study. In both experiments and in the user study participants strongly preferred the bimanual technique. The results also indicate that user preferences concerning bimanual interaction may be driven by factors other than simple time-motion performance advantages.

/pdf/exploring-bimanual-camera-control-and-object-manipulation-in-1ojgo2rq8g.pdf

Exploring bimanual camera control and object manipulation in 3D graphics interfaces

: This report reviews the current state-of-the-art in three-dimensional display technology. The basic perceptual cues used to perceive the third(depth) dimension are first described, and empirical data bearing on the interaction between these cues are discussed. Generally, when more depth cues are present, a proportionately more salient sense of depth is conveyed. But this additive model breaks down when motion is involved. It is concluded that stereopsis motion, and occlusion are particularly salient cues. Techniques for implementing perspective and stereoptic displays are then described. This discussion is followed by a review of 3 display technology applications in the following areas: flight deck displays, air traffic control, meteorology, teleoperation, and computer graphics. Where available, studies are discussed which contrast the efficacy of 3D with 2D representations. In both laboratory and field studies, it appears that the usefulness of stereopsis is diminished and may vanish altogether when displays are dynamic.

Three-Dimensional Displays: Perception, Implementation, and Applications

This paper briefly reviews work on verbal report and describes SHAPA, an interactive program for performing both verbal and non-verbal protocol analysis. To a certain extent, SHAPA is to protocol data what a spreadsheet program is to numerical data or what a word processor is to text it is intelligent about the sorts of things a researcher might want to do with verbal or non-verbal protocols, while being blind to particular domains, contexts, or theories. It has been developed with the idea of affording the researcher the closest possible degree of engagement with protocol data. The researcher can configure SHAPA to encode protocols using a wide variety of theoretical frameworks or vocabularies. SHAPA allows protocol analysis to be performed at any level of analysis, and it supplies many tools for data aggregation, manipulation and analysis. Some of these tools have been imported from a tradition of work on non-verbal protocol analysis that has developed very strong analytical tools. The output generated ...

SHAPA: an interactive software environment for protocol analysis

One approach to organizing information in a multifunction display (MFD) is to place related screens of information closer to each other. This study identified three metrics that could be used to operationalize the concept of distance in an MFD. The proposed distance metrics - navigational (the number of choice points lying between two screens), organizational (the hierarchical structure of the data base), and cognitive (the user's perception of relationships among screens) - were empirically examined by using a simulated, hierarchically arranged, menu-driven MFD in an aviation context. Subjects engaged in two tasks that required them to access different target screens from various starting screens in a 290-screen MFD. The tasks differed in the navigational mechanisms subjects were allowed to use to navigate around the MFD and the relationships between the starting and target screens. The results suggest that the three distance metrics are meaningful within the context of a multifunction display.

Distance and organization in multifunction displays

Pilots were required to access information from a hierarchical aviation database by navigating under single-task conditions (Experiment 1) and when this task was time-shared with an altitude-monitoring task of varying bandwidth and priority (Experiment 2). In dual-task conditions, pilots had 2 viewports available, 1 always used for the information task and the other to be allocated to either task. Dual-task strategy, inferred from the decision of which task to allocate to the 2nd viewport, revealed that allocation was generally biased in favor of the monitoring task and was only partly sensitive to the difficulty of the 2 tasks and their relative priorities. Some dominant sources of navigational difficulties failed to adaptively influence selection strategy. The implications of the results are to provide tools for jumping to the top of the database, to provide 2 viewports into the common database, and to provide training as to the optimum viewport management strategy in a multitask environment.

Information access in a dual-task context: testing a model of optimal strategy selection.

Twenty pilots searched through a 280 screen hierarchically organized data base of flight information in single task conditions, and in dual-task conditions which required concurrent monitoring of an altitude variable. Two screens were available that could either be shared between the two tasks, or fully allocated to the information access task (IAT). Search questions varied in the distance in the data base that needed to be traversed and in the extent to which they required working memory to integrate information between two screens. Subjects performed the dual task trials under either information or monitoring task emphasis, and when the monitoring task was either low or high bandwidth. The results indicated that longer single task traversals resulted from integration problems, from more distant nodes, and from nodes that shared the same top level of the hierarchy. The dual task results indicated that a measured strategic variable which facilitated performance on the IAT (the devotion of both screens to ...

The effects of task and multifunction display characteristics on pilot viewport allocation strategy

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