The ability to use cognitive reappraisal to regulate emotions is an adaptive skill in adulthood, but little is known about its development. Because reappraisal is thought to be supported by linearly developing prefrontal regions, one prediction is that reappraisal ability develops linearly. However, recent investigations into socio-emotional development suggest that there are non-linear patterns that uniquely affect adolescents. We compared older children (10–13), adolescents (14–17) and young adults (18–22) on a task that distinguishes negative emotional reactivity from reappraisal ability. Behaviorally, we observed no age differences in self-reported emotional reactivity, but linear and quadratic relationships between reappraisal ability and age. Neurally, we observed linear age-related increases in activation in the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, previously identified in adult reappraisal. We observed a quadratic pattern of activation with age in regions associated with social cognitive processes like mental state attribution (medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, anterior temporal cortex). In these regions, we observed relatively lower reactivity-related activation in adolescents, but higher reappraisal-related activation. This suggests that (i) engagement of the cognitive control components of reappraisal increases linearly with age and (ii) adolescents may not normally recruit regions associated with mental state attribution, but (iii) this can be reversed with reappraisal instructions.

/pdf/the-development-of-emotion-regulation-an-fmri-study-of-1cgrcmp7su.pdf

The development of emotion regulation: an fMRI study of cognitive reappraisal in children, adolescents and young adults

We review the literature on sex differences and the own-gender bias in face recognition. By means of a meta-analysis, we found that girls and women remember more faces than boys and men do (g=0.36), and more female faces (g=0.55), but not more male faces (g=0.08); however, when only male faces are presented, girls and women outperform boys and men (g=0.22). In addition, there is female own-gender bias (g=0.57), but not a male own-gender bias (g= − 0.03), showing that girls and women remember more female than male faces. It is argued that girls and women have an advantage in face processing and episodic memory, resulting in sex differences for faces, and that the female own-gender bias may stem from an early perceptual expertise for female faces, which may be strengthened by reciprocal interactions and psychological processes directing girls' and women's interest to other females.

Sex differences and the own-gender bias in face recognition: A meta-analytic review

How much of the structure of the human mind and brain is already specified at birth, and how much arises from experience? In this article, we consider the test case of extrastriate visual cortex, where a highly systematic functional organization is present in virtually every normal adult, including regions preferring behaviourally significant stimulus categories, such as faces, bodies, and scenes. Novel methods were developed to scan awake infants with fMRI, while they viewed multiple categories of visual stimuli. Here we report that the visual cortex of 4–6-month-old infants contains regions that respond preferentially to abstract categories (faces and scenes), with a spatial organization similar to adults. However, precise response profiles and patterns of activity across multiple visual categories differ between infants and adults. These results demonstrate that the large-scale organization of category preferences in visual cortex is adult-like within a few months after birth, but is subsequently refined through development. Adult visual cortex is organized into regions that respond to categories such as faces and scenes, but it is unclear if this depends on experience. Here, authors measured brain activity in 4–6 month old infants looking at faces and scenes and find that their visual cortex is organized similarly to adults.

/pdf/organization-of-high-level-visual-cortex-in-human-infants-4srpknxfgj.pdf

Organization of high-level visual cortex in human infants

Here we report that monkeys raised without exposure to faces did not develop face domains, but did develop domains for other categories and did show normal retinotopic organization, indicating that early face deprivation leads to a highly selective cortical processing deficit. Therefore, experience must be necessary for the formation (or maintenance) of face domains. Gaze tracking revealed that control monkeys looked preferentially at faces, even at ages prior to the emergence of face domains, but face-deprived monkeys did not, indicating that face looking is not innate. A retinotopic organization is present throughout the visual system at birth, so selective early viewing behavior could bias category-specific visual responses toward particular retinotopic representations, thereby leading to domain formation in stereotyped locations in inferotemporal cortex, without requiring category-specific templates or biases. Thus, we propose that environmental importance influences viewing behavior, viewing behavior drives neuronal activity, and neuronal activity sculpts domain formation.

Seeing faces is necessary for face-domain formation.

http://vpnl.stanford.edu/documents/Weiner_et_al_NI_2013.pdf

The mid-fusiform sulcus: a landmark identifying both cytoarchitectonic and functional divisions of human ventral temporal cortex.

The ventral temporal cortex (VTC) in humans includes functionally defined regions that preferentially respond to objects, faces, and places. Recent developmental studies suggest that the face selective region in the fusiform gyrus (‘fusiform face area’, FFA) undergoes a prolonged development involving substantial increases in its volume after 7 years of age. However, the endpoint of this development is not known. Here we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the development of face-, object- and place selective regions in the VTC of adolescents (12–16 year olds) and adults (18–40 year olds). We found that the volume of face selective activations in the right fusiform gyrus was substantially larger in adults than in adolescents, and was positively correlated with age. This development was associated with higher response amplitudes and selectivity for faces in face selective regions of VTC and increased differentiation of the distributed response patterns to faces versus non-face stimuli across the entire VTC. Furthermore, right FFA size was positively correlated with face recognition memory performance, but not with recognition memory of objects or places. In contrast, the volume of object- and place selective cortical regions or their response amplitudes did not change across these age groups. Thus, we found a striking and prolonged development of face selectivity across the VTC during adolescence that was specifically associated with proficiency in face recognition memory. These findings have important implications for theories of development and functional specialization in VTC.

Differential development of the ventral visual cortex extends through adolescence

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Differential development of the ventral visual cortex extends through adolescence