Aquaculture is among the most dynamic sectors in the global food system, yet it remains surprisingly under-represented in the mainstream literature on food policy. This article reviews 204 published articles and reports and shows that government policies have strongly influenced the geographic distribution of aquaculture growth, as well as the types of species, technology, management practices, and infrastructure adopted in different locations. Global cross-section studies reveal a broad spectrum of under- to over-regulated aquaculture systems that correspond, respectively, to high- and low-growth areas for aquaculture. The bulk of this paper centers on aquaculture policy as it plays out six individual countries plus the EU: Bangladesh, Zambia, Chile, China, USA, and Norway. These case studies shed light on aquaculture policies aimed at economic development, aquaculture disease management, siting, environmental performance, and trade protection. Experiences from these countries point to the need to find the right policy balance between semi-subsistence farms, small and medium enterprises (SME), and large-scale commercial operations, particularly in low-income settings. The cases also highlight the importance of addressing aquaculture disease pressures and misuse of antimicrobials in many parts of the world, and identifying successful aquaculture policy instruments and institutions that can be transferred between countries. The review underscores the challenges of establishing nutrition-sensitive aquaculture policies and of incorporating aquaculture directly into food policy and global food system dialogues and action. 

A global view of aquaculture policy

Blue foods, sourced in aquatic environments, are important for the economies, livelihoods, nutritional security and cultures of people in many nations. They are often nutrient rich1, generate lower emissions and impacts on land and water than many terrestrial meats2, and contribute to the health3, wellbeing and livelihoods of many rural communities4. The Blue Food Assessment recently evaluated nutritional, environmental, economic and justice dimensions of blue foods globally. Here we integrate these findings and translate them into four policy objectives to help realize the contributions that blue foods can make to national food systems around the world: ensuring supplies of critical nutrients, providing healthy alternatives to terrestrial meat, reducing dietary environmental footprints and safeguarding blue food contributions to nutrition, just economies and livelihoods under a changing climate. To account for how context-specific environmental, socio-economic and cultural aspects affect this contribution, we assess the relevance of each policy objective for individual countries, and examine associated co-benefits and trade-offs at national and international scales. We find that in many African and South American nations, facilitating consumption of culturally relevant blue food, especially among nutritionally vulnerable population segments, could address vitamin B12 and omega-3 deficiencies. Meanwhile, in many global North nations, cardiovascular disease rates and large greenhouse gas footprints from ruminant meat intake could be lowered through moderate consumption of seafood with low environmental impact. The analytical framework we provide also identifies countries with high future risk, for whom climate adaptation of blue food systems will be particularly important. Overall the framework helps decision makers to assess the blue food policy objectives most relevant to their geographies, and to compare and contrast the benefits and trade-offs associated with pursuing these objectives. 

/pdf/four-ways-blue-foods-can-help-achieve-food-system-ambitions-35h2pvow.pdf

Four ways blue foods can help achieve food system ambitions across nations

The asymmetric impacts of international agricultural trade on water use scarcity, inequality and inequity

A circular economy is considered one way to reduce environmental impacts of human activities, by more efficient use of resources and recovery, resulting in less waste and emissions compared to linear take‐make‐dispose systems. Muscat et al. developed five ecological principles to guide biomass use towards a circular economy. A few studies have demonstrated environmental benefits of applying these principles to land‐based food systems, but to date, these principles have not been explored in aquaculture. The current study expands on these principles and provides a narrative review to (i) translate them to aquaculture, while identifying implications for the main species and production systems, and (ii) identify the main pathways to make aquaculture more circular. We show that the underlying concepts of the ‘safeguard’, ‘entropy’, and ‘recycle’ principles have been well researched and sometimes well implemented. In contrast, the ‘avoid’ and ‘prioritise’ principles have been explored much less; doing so would provide an opportunity to decrease environmental impacts of aquaculture at the food‐system level. One example is prioritising the production of species that contribute to food and nutrition security, have low environmental impacts and thinking at wider food system scale to avoid feed‐food competition in aquaculture. We identified six priorities that could make aquaculture more circular: (i) increase production and demand for the most essential species, (ii) decrease food loss and waste at farm and post‐harvest stages, (iii) support nutrient recycling practices at multiple scales, (iv) adapt aquafeed formulations, (v) inform consumers about benefits of species of low trophic levels and other environmentally friendly aquatic foods, and (vi) address urgent research gaps.

Transforming sustainable aquaculture by applying circularity principles

The Blue Economy (BE) has captured the attention of diverse interests to the ocean and there is rising concern about making it more equitable and inclusive. As it currently stands, diversity, social equity, and inclusion considerations have not been foregrounded in the discourse surrounding the BE and are continuously overlooked and undervalued. This paper reviews the ongoing social inequalities in the BE and distribution of benefits and costs across different groups in society. It also explores why equity matters, and how it can be achieved. Mirroring the call for under-represented or marginalized social groups to receive a fair share of the returns, which may be more than they have received to date. Our analysis shows that between 1988 and 2017, a Germany–based company has registered about 39% of all known marine genetic resources, while three companies in Asia control 30% of the market share of seafood sector in 2018. These findings show high consolidation of the ocean space by top corporations. Therefore, this paper argues that the exclusion of equity considerations within the BE investments can undermine ocean-based activities such as marine wildlife conservation initiatives that may disrupt the ocean sustainability agenda.

Diversity, equity, and inclusion in the Blue Economy: Why they matter and how do we achieve them?

Injustices are prevalent in food systems, where the accumulation of vast wealth is possible for a few, yet one in ten people remain hungry. Here, for 194 countries we combine aquatic food production, distribution and consumption data with corresponding national policy documents and, drawing on theories of social justice, explore whether barriers to participation explain unequal distributions of benefits. Using Bayesian models, we find economic and political barriers are associated with lower wealth-based benefits; countries produce and consume less when wealth, formal education and voice and accountability are lacking. In contrast, social barriers are associated with lower welfare-based benefits; aquatic foods are less affordable where gender inequality is greater. Our analyses of policy documents reveal a frequent failure to address political and gender-based barriers. However, policies linked to more just food system outcomes centre principles of human rights, specify inclusive decision-making processes and identify and challenge drivers of injustice. 

/pdf/rights-and-representation-support-justice-across-aquatic-e6f61lqr.pdf

Rights and representation support justice across aquatic food systems

Assessing Danger. (Book Reviews: Of Acceptable Risk. Science and the Determination of Safety)

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Rights and representation support justice across aquatic food systems

Assessing Danger. (Book Reviews: Of Acceptable Risk. Science and the Determination of Safety)