This review covers advances in electrochemical and biochemical sensor development and usage during 2010 and 2011 In choosing scholarly articles to contribute to this review, special emphasis was placed on work published in the areas of reference electrodes, potentiometric sensors, voltammetric sensors, amperometric sensors, biosensors, immunosensors, and mass sensors In the past two years there have been a number of important papers, that do not fall into the general subsections contained within the larger sections Such novel advances are very important for the field of electrochemical sensors as they open up new avenues and methods for future research Each section above contains a subsection titled “Other Papers of Interest” that includes such articles and describes their importance to the field in general For example, while most electrochemical techniques for sensing analytes of interest are based on the changes in potential or current, Shan et al1 have developed a completely novel method for performing electrochemical measurements In their work, they report a method for imaging local electrochemical current using the optical signal of the electrode surface generated from a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) The electrochemical current image is based on the fact that the current density can be easily calculated from the local SPR signal The authors demonstrated this concept by imaging traces of TNT on a fingerprint on a gold substrate

Full articles and reviews were primarily amassed by searching the SciFinder Scholar and ISI Web of Knowledge Additional articles were found through alternate databases or by perusing analytical journals for pertinent publications Due to the reference limitation, only publications written in English were considered for inclusion Obviously, there have been more published accounts of groundbreaking work with electrochemical and biochemical sensors than those covered here This review is a small sampling of the available literature and not intended to cover every advance of the past two years The literature chosen focuses on new trends in materials, techniques, and clinically relevant applications of novel sensors To ensure proper coverage of these trends, theoretical publications and applications of previously reported sensor development were excluded

We want to remind our readers that this review is not intended to provide comprehensive coverage of electrochemical sensor development, but rather to provide a glimpse of the available depth of knowledge published in the past two years This review is meant to focus on novel methods and materials, with a particular focus on the increasing use of graphene sheets for sensor material development For readers seeking more information on the general principles behind electrochemical sensors and electrochemical methods, we recommend other sources with a broader scope2, 3 Electrochemical sensor research is continually providing new insights into a variety of fields and providing a breadth of relevant literature that is worthy of inclusion in this review Unfortunately, it is impossible to cover each publication and unintentional oversights are inevitable We sincerely apologize to the authors of electrochemical and biochemical sensor publications that were inadvertently overlooked

Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors

Corrosion inhibitors for steel in concrete: State-of-the-art report

Influence of fly ash on the water and chloride permeability of alkali-activated slag mortars and concretes

https://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/bitstream/1822/16351/1/Pacheco%20Torgal%20et%20al.%202012.pdf

Durability of alkali-activated binders: A clear advantage over Portland cement or an unproven issue?

A review of waste products utilized as supplements to Portland cement in concrete

The effect of various inhibitive ions (hydroxide, citrate, stannate) for the corrosion of steel in concrete was studied by weight loss measurements, chronopotential studies, anodic polarization technique and compressive strength tests. The salient features of the investigation were: in 100% OPC as well as in OPC + fly ash (3:1 ratio) extracts the passivity of steel was readily destroyed even by the presence of 10 000 ppm of chloride. However in 100% OPC and also in OPC + fly ash (3:1 ratio) extracts containing inhibitive and complexing agents like hydroxide, citrate and stannate, the passivity of steel was maintained even in the presence of 30 000 ppm of chloride. The addition of inhibitive ions like hydroxide, citrate and stannate not only decreased the corrosion rate of steel in simulated concrete environments but also increased the compressive strength of mortars. Citrates, stannates and CaO are effective inhibitors of the corrosion of steel in concrete.

Competitive role of inhibitive and aggressive ions in the corrosion of steel in concrete

The influence of alkaline nitrites on the inhibition of corrosion of steel in binary and ternary cement environments was tested. pH measurements carried out for binary and ternary cement extracts showed that the alkalinity of the cement was not affected by making use of binary and ternary cements. Gravimetric measurements showed that the decrease in the corrosion rate of steel in different systems follows the order: Ternary > (OPC + PSC) > (OPC + PPC) > (PPC + PSC). Potential–time studies indicated that the ability to maintain the passivity of steel in different systems also follows the order as above. Potentiodynamic polarisation studies for steel in binary and ternary cement environments showed the favourable influence of the presence of higher amounts of chlorides. Nitrites of sodium, potassium and calcium act as anodic inhibitors and they compete with chloride ions for the ferrous ions at the steel to form a film of ferric oxide. An efficiency as high as 91% is obtained for the ternary system containing 1% chloride and 0.5% nitrite. The degree of surface coverage showed a maximum value for the ternary system (>0.9) even in the presence of a higher amount of chloride thereby indicating the better performance of the system.

https://krc.cecri.res.in/ro_2009/081-2009.pdf

Role of alkaline nitrites in the corrosion performance of steel in composite cements

The relationship between alumina and chloride content on the physical and corrosion resistance properties of
OPC concrete was studied. Friedel’s salt was formed in situ in OPC concrete by the addition of various percentages
of alumina (1% to 15%) along with 1% CaCl2. The compressive strength data revealed that the addition of Al2O3
increased the early strength of concrete. The Friedel’s salt formation up to 5% Al2O3 showed maximum compressive
strength. The Rapid Chloride Ion Permeability Test (RCPT) revealed that the quantity of electrical charge passed for
OPC concrete at 5% Al2O3 showed a 50% reduction in coulombs. The 12V impressed voltage test indicated a
gradual increase in anodic current flow and delayed time taken for initial crack up to 5% Al2O3 addition. Potential vs
time data from macrocell corrosion studies maintained the passivity of steel embedded in OPC concrete up to 5%
Al2O3 throughout the exposure period of 12 months. Correspondingly, the macrocell current was also considerably
reduced (50%) in OPC concrete at the 5% Al2O3 level. Scanning electron micrographs revealed a denser formation of
Friedel’s salt at the 5% Al2O3 level. The XRD pattern at the 5% Al2O3 level also confirmed the existence of a greater
amount of Friedel’s salt. The optimum percentage of alumina for the formation of Friedel’s salt in OPC concrete
with improved properties was found to be 5%.

Relationship between alumina and chloride content on their physical and corrosion resistance properties of concrete

The inhibitive performance of migrating and admixed inhibitors for steel embedded in ordinary Portland cement
(OPC), Portland pozzolona cement (PPC), and Portland slag cement (PSC) concretes were evaluated under macro
cell corrosion condition. Macrocell corrosion parameters, such as anode potential, macro cell current, and total
integrated current, were monitored over a one year exposure period. The corrosion rate of steel embedded in
different concretes was assessed by the gravimetric weight loss method. The surface of the specimens was further
examined by UV and FTIR spectroscopy. All the studies revealed that migrating corrosion inhibitor (MCI)
performed better than admixed inhibitor in reducing the corrosion rate of steel embedded in different concretes under
macrocell condition.

Migrating vs admixed corrosion inhibitors for steel in Portland, Pozzolona and Slag cement concretes under macro cell condition

Evaluation of a composite corrosion-inhibiting admixture and its performance in concrete under macrocell corrosion conditions

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