When silage is exposed to air on opening the silo, or after its removal from the silo, fermentation acids and other substrates are oxidized by aerobic bacteria, yeasts and moulds. The aerobic stability of silage is a key factor in ensuring that silage provides well-preserved nutrients to the animal with minimal amounts of mould spores and toxins. In this paper, key findings and recent developments are reviewed, and findings of recent research are integrated in terms of four themes: (i) the most significant biochemical and microbiological factors, (ii) physical and management factors, (iii) type of additive and (iv) silo sealing. The development of yeasts and moulds during plant growth, and during field wilting or storage, and the concentration of undissociated acetic acid in silage are important microbiological and biochemical factors affecting aerobic stability. Silage density and porosity are key physical factors that affect the rate of ingress of oxygen into the silage mass during the feed-out period. A target for potential silage aerobic stability is 7 d including time in the feed trough. To achieve this target, speed of harvest should be coordinated with packing tractor weight to achieve a minimum silage density by the time of feed-out of 210 kg DM m−3, maximum proportional porosity of 0·4 and a rate of silage removal, which matches or exceeds the depth of air penetration into the silo. The use of additives to increase aerobic stability is advisable when there is the risk of these objectives not being met. Novel microbial approaches to solving the problem of silage aerobic deterioration are needed.

The aerobic stability of silage: key findings and recent developments

Yeasts occur in all environments and have been described as potent antagonists of various plant pathogens. Due to their antagonistic ability, undemanding cultivation requirements, and limited biosafety concerns, many of these unicellular fungi have been considered for biocontrol applications. Here, we review the fundamental research on the mechanisms (e.g., competition, enzyme secretion, toxin production, volatiles, mycoparasitism, induction of resistance) by which biocontrol yeasts exert their activity as plant protection agents. In a second part, we focus on five yeast species (Candida oleophila, Aureobasidium pullulans, Metschnikowia fructicola, Cryptococcus albidus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae) that are or have been registered for the application as biocontrol products. These examples demonstrate the potential of yeasts for commercial biocontrol usage, but this review also highlights the scarcity of fundamental studies on yeast biocontrol mechanisms and of registered yeast-based biocontrol products. Yeast biocontrol mechanisms thus represent a largely unexplored field of research and plentiful opportunities for the development of commercial, yeast-based applications for plant protection exist.

/pdf/biocontrol-yeasts-mechanisms-and-applications-1ti0e72hvn.pdf

Biocontrol Yeasts: Mechanisms and Applications

The yeasts constitute a large and heterogeneous group of microorganisms that are currently attracting increased attention from scientists and industry. Numerous and diverse biological activities make them promising candidates for a wide range of applications not limited to the food sector. In addition to their major contribution to flavor development in fermented foods, their antagonistic activities toward undesirable bacteria and fungi are now widely known. These activities are associated with their competitiveness for nutrients, acidification of their growth medium, their tolerance of high concentrations of ethanol, and release of antimicrobial compounds such as antifungal killer toxins or “mycocins” and antibacterial compounds. While the design of foods containing probiotics (microorganisms that confer health benefits) has focused primarily on Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii has long been known effective for treating gastroenteritis. In this review, the antimicrobial activities of yeasts are examined. Mechanisms underlying this antagonistic activity as well as recent applications of these biologically active yeasts in both the medical and veterinary sectors are described.

/pdf/antimicrobial-and-probiotic-properties-of-yeasts-from-4yoao5nrcf.pdf

Antimicrobial and Probiotic Properties of Yeasts: From Fundamental to Novel Applications

Ana Guimaraes received support through grant SFRH/BD/
103245/2014 from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and
Technology (FCT). Luis Abrunhosa was supported by grant
UMINHO/BPD/51/2015 from project UID/BIO/04469/2013
financed by FCT/MEC (OE). This study was supported by FCT
under the scope of the strategic funding of UID/BIO/04469/2013
unit and COMPETE 2020 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006684),
and of BioTecNorte operation (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER000004)
funded by European Regional Development Fund under
the scope of Norte2020 - Programa Operacional Regional do
Norte. Vectors used in Figure were designed by Freepik.

/pdf/edible-films-and-coatings-as-carriers-of-living-3tgk4ktj79.pdf

Edible films and coatings as carriers of living microorganisms: a new strategy towards biopreservation and healthier foods

The yeasts constitute a large group of microorganisms characterized by the ability to grow and survive in different and stressful conditions and then to colonize a wide range of environmental and human ecosystems. The competitive traits against other microorganisms have attracted increasing attention from scientists, who proposed their successful application as bioprotective agents in the agricultural, food and medical sectors. These antagonistic activities rely on the competition for nutrients, production and tolerance of high concentrations of ethanol, as well as the synthesis of a large class of antimicrobial compounds, known as killer toxins, which showed clearly a large spectrum of activity against food spoilage microorganisms, but also against plant, animal and human pathogens. This review describes the antimicrobial mechanisms involved in the antagonistic activity, their applications in the processed and unprocessed food sectors, as well as the future perspectives in the development of new bio-drugs, which may overcome the limitations connected to conventional antimicrobial and drug resistance.

/pdf/bioprotective-role-of-yeasts-2tuwqown4z.pdf

Bioprotective Role of Yeasts.

The yeast Williopsis mrakii produces a mycocin or yeast killer toxin designated HMK; this toxin exhibits high thermal stability, high pH stability, and a broad spectrum of activity against other yeasts. We describe construction of a synthetic gene for mycocin HMK and heterologous expression of this toxin in Aspergillus niger. Mycocin HMK was fused to a glucoamylase protein carrier, which resulted in secretion of biologically active mycocin into the culture media. A partial purification protocol was developed, and a comparison with native W. mrakii mycocin showed that the heterologously expressed mycocin had similar physiological properties and an almost identical spectrum of biological activity against a number of yeasts isolated from silage and yoghurt. Two food and feed production systems prone to yeast spoilage were used as models to assess the ability of mycocin HMK to act as a biocontrol agent. The onset of aerobic spoilage in mature maize silage was delayed by application of A. niger mycocin HMK on opening because the toxin inhibited growth of the indigenous spoilage yeasts. This helped maintain both higher lactic acid levels and a lower pH. In yoghurt spiked with dairy spoilage yeasts, A. niger mycocin HMK was active at all of the storage temperatures tested at which yeast growth occurred, and there was no resurgence of resistant yeasts. The higher the yeast growth rate, the more effective the killing action of the mycocin. Thus, mycocin HMK has potential applications in controlling both silage spoilage and yoghurt spoilage caused by yeasts.

https://aem.asm.org/content/aem/66/3/1066.full.pdf

Prevention of yeast spoilage in feed and food by the yeast mycocin HMK.

Winters, A. L., Lloyd, J. D., Leemans, D., Lowes, K., Merry, R. (2002). Effect of inoculation with Lactobacillus plantarum on protein degradation during ensilage of red clover. Proceedings XIII International Silage Conference SAC, Auchincruive, Ayr, Scotland, 11-13 September 2002, Gechie, L. M.Thomas, C. 108-109

Effect of inoculation with Lactobacillus plantarum on protein degradation during ensilage of red clover

Davies, D. R., Leemans, D. K., Bakewell, E. L., Lowes, K., Winters, A. L., Scollan, N. D., Evans, P., Cooper, A., Merry, R. J. (2002). Development of a novel silage inoculant from small scale laboratory to large clamp silos. Proceedings XIII International Silage Conference SAC, Auchincruive, Ayr, Scotland, 11-13 September 2002, Gechie, L. M.Thomas, C. 202-203

Development of a novel silage inoculant from small scale laboratory to large clamp silos

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Prevention of yeast spoilage in feed and food by the yeast mycocin HMK.

Effect of inoculation with Lactobacillus plantarum on protein degradation during ensilage of red clover

Development of a novel silage inoculant from small scale laboratory to large clamp silos