Electro-optic modulators (EOMs) convert signals from the electrical to the optical domain. They are at the heart of optical communication, microwave signal processing, sensing, and quantum technologies. Next-generation EOMs require high-density integration, low cost, and high performance simultaneously, which are difficult to achieve with established integrated photonics platforms. Thin-film lithium niobate (LN) has recently emerged as a strong contender owing to its high intrinsic electro-optic (EO) efficiency, industry-proven performance, robustness, and, importantly, the rapid development of scalable fabrication techniques. The thin-film LN platform inherits nearly all the material advantages from the legacy bulk LN devices and amplifies them with a smaller footprint, wider bandwidths, and lower power consumption. Since the first adoption of commercial thin-film LN wafers only a few years ago, the overall performance of thin-film LN modulators is already comparable with, if not exceeding, the performance of the best alternatives based on mature platforms such as silicon and indium phosphide, which have benefited from many decades of research and development. In this mini-review, we explain the principles and technical advances that have enabled state-of-the-art LN modulator demonstrations. We discuss several approaches, their advantages and challenges. We also outline the paths to follow if LN modulators are to improve further, and we provide a perspective on what we believe their performance could become in the future. Finally, as the integrated LN modulator is a key subcomponent of more complex photonic functionalities, we look forward to exciting opportunities for larger-scale LN EO circuits beyond single components.

Integrated lithium niobate electro-optic modulators: when performance meets scalability

Optical links are moving to higher and higher transmission speeds while shrinking to shorter and shorter ranges where optical links are envisaged even at the chip scale. The scaling in data speed and span of the optical links demands modulators to be concurrently performant and cost-effective. Silicon photonics (SiPh), a photonic integrated circuit technology that leverages the fabrication sophistication of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor technology, is well-positioned to deliver the performance, price, and manufacturing volume for the high-speed modulators of future optical communication links. SiPh has relied on the plasma dispersion effect, either in injection, depletion, or accumulation mode, to demonstrate efficient high-speed modulators. The high-speed plasma dispersion silicon modulators have been commercially deployed and have demonstrated excellent performance. Recent years have seen a paradigm shift where the integration of various electro-refractive and electro-absorptive materials has opened up additional routes toward performant SiPh modulators. These modulators are in the early years of their development. They promise to extend the performance beyond the limits set by the physical properties of silicon. The focus of our study is to provide a comprehensive review of contemporary (i.e., plasma dispersion modulators) and new modulator implementations that involve the integration of novel materials with SiPh.

/pdf/taking-silicon-photonics-modulators-to-a-higher-performance-28x33hm4hq.pdf

Taking silicon photonics modulators to a higher performance level: state-of-the-art and a review of new technologies

Electro-optic modulators are an indispensable part of photonic communication systems, largely dictating the achievable transmission rate. Recent advances in materials and fabrication/processing techniques have brought new elements and a renewed dynamic to research on optical modulation. Motivated by the new opportunities, this Perspective reviews the state of the art in integrated electro-optic modulators, covering a broad range of contemporary materials and integrated platforms. To provide a better overview of the status of current modulators, an assessment of the different material platforms is conducted on the basis of common performance metrics: extinction ratio, insertion loss, electro-optic bandwidth, driving voltage, and footprint. The main physical phenomena exploited for electro-optic modulation are first introduced, aiming to provide a self-contained reference to researchers in physics and engineering. Additionally, we take care to highlight topics that can be overlooked and require attention, such as the accurate calculation of carrier density distribution and energy consumption, the correct modeling of thin and two-dimensional materials, and the nature of contact electrodes. Finally, a future outlook for the different electro-optic materials is provided, anticipating the research and performance trends in the years to come.

Electro-optic modulation in integrated photonics

Abstract The simultaneous advances in artificial neural networks and photonic integration technologies have spurred extensive research in optical computing and optical neural networks (ONNs). The potential to simultaneously exploit multiple physical dimensions of time, wavelength and space give ONNs the ability to achieve computing operations with high parallelism and large-data throughput. Different photonic multiplexing techniques based on these multiple degrees of freedom have enabled ONNs with large-scale interconnectivity and linear computing functions. Here, we review the recent advances of ONNs based on different approaches to photonic multiplexing, and present our outlook on key technologies needed to further advance these photonic multiplexing/hybrid-multiplexing techniques of ONNs.

Photonic multiplexing techniques for neuromorphic computing

Abstract Electro-optic modulators are essential for sensing, metrology and telecommunications. Most target fiber applications. Instead, metasurface-based architectures that modulate free-space light at gigahertz (GHz) speeds can boost flat optics technology by microwave electronics for active optics, diffractive computing or optoelectronic control. Current realizations are bulky or have low modulation efficiencies. Here, we demonstrate a hybrid silicon-organic metasurface platform that leverages Mie resonances for efficient electro-optic modulation at GHz speeds. We exploit quasi bound states in the continuum (BIC) that provide narrow linewidth ( Q = 550 at $${\lambda }_{{{{{{{{\rm{res}}}}}}}}}=1594$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>λ</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>res</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> <mml:mn>1594</mml:mn> </mml:math> nm), light confinement to the non-linear material, tunability by design and voltage and GHz-speed electrodes. Key to the achieved modulation of $$\frac{{{\Delta }}T}{{T}_{\max }}=67 \%$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>Δ</mml:mi> <mml:mi>T</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>T</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>max</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> <mml:mn>67</mml:mn> <mml:mi>%</mml:mi> </mml:math> are molecules with r 33 = 100 pm/V and optical field optimization for low-loss. We demonstrate DC tuning of the resonant frequency of quasi-BIC by $${{\Delta }}{\lambda }_{{{{{{{{\rm{res}}}}}}}}}=$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mi>Δ</mml:mi> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>λ</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>res</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> </mml:math> 11 nm, surpassing its linewidth, and modulation up to 5 GHz ( f E O ,−3 d B = 3 GHz). Guided mode resonances tune by $${{\Delta }}{\lambda }_{{{{{{{{\rm{res}}}}}}}}}=$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mi>Δ</mml:mi> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>λ</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>res</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> </mml:math> 20 nm. Our hybrid platform may incorporate free-space nanostructures of any geometry or material, by application of the active layer post-fabrication. 

/pdf/gigahertz-free-space-electro-optic-modulators-based-on-mie-l7e5wde4.pdf

Gigahertz free-space electro-optic modulators based on Mie resonances

To reduce the ever-increasing energy consumption in datacenters, one of the effective approaches is to increase the ambient temperature, thus lowering the energy consumed in the cooling systems. However, this entails more stringent requirements for the reliability and durability of the optoelectronic components. Herein, we fabricate and demonstrate silicon-polymer hybrid modulators which support ultra-fast single-lane data rates up to 200 gigabits per second, and meanwhile feature excellent reliability with an exceptional signal fidelity retained at extremely-high ambient temperatures up to 110 °C and even after long-term exposure to high temperatures. This is achieved by taking advantage of the high electro-optic (EO) activities (in-device n3r33 = 1021 pm V−1), low dielectric constant, low propagation loss (α, 0.22 dB mm−1), and ultra-high glass transition temperature (Tg, 172 °C) of the developed side-chain EO polymers. The presented modulator simultaneously fulfils the requirements of bandwidth, EO efficiency, and thermal stability for EO modulators. It could provide ultra-fast and reliable interconnects for energy-hungry and harsh-environment applications such as datacentres, 5G/B5G, autonomous driving, and aviation systems, effectively addressing the energy consumption issue for the next-generation optical communication. Information and communication datacentres require a large amount of energy for their cooling systems, which could be decreased by working at higher temperatures. Here, the authors introduce a silicon-polymer hybrid modulator that maintains high data rates for long periods at high temperatures that could be used under such conditions, to reduce energy consumption.

/pdf/high-temperature-resistant-silicon-polymer-hybrid-modulator-cerdi2mrje.pdf

High-temperature-resistant silicon-polymer hybrid modulator operating at up to 200 Gbit s-1 for energy-efficient datacentres and harsh-environment applications.

In this paper, we report the feature and properties about organic-inorganic hybrid material, “SUNCONNECT®” for photonic integrated circuit. “SUNCONNECT®” materials have low propagation loss at 1310nm (0.29dB/cm) and 1550nm (0.45dB/cm) respectively. In addition, the material has high thermal resistance both high temperature annealing test at 300°C and also 260°C solder heat resistance test. For actual device application, high reliability is required. 85°C /85% test was examined by using multi-mode waveguide. As a result, it indicated that variation of insertion loss property was not changed significantly after high temperature / high humidity test. For the application to photonic integrated circuit, it was demonstrated to fabricate polymer optical waveguide by using three different methods. Single-micron core pattern can be fabricated on cladding layer by using UV lithography with proximity gap exposure. Also, single-mode waveguide can be also fabricated with over cladding. On the other hands, “Mosquito method” and imprint method can be applied to fabricate polymer optical waveguide. Remarkably, these two methods can fabricate gradedindex type optical waveguide without using photo mask. In order to evaluate the optical performance, NFP’s observation, measurement of insertion loss and propagation loss by cut-back methods were carried out by using each waveguide sample.

Organic-inorganic hybrid material SUNCONNECT(R) for photonic integrated circuit

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High-temperature-resistant silicon-polymer hybrid modulator operating at up to 200 Gbit s-1 for energy-efficient datacentres and harsh-environment applications.

Organic-inorganic hybrid material SUNCONNECT(R) for photonic integrated circuit