This paper provides a systematic review and classification of in vivo microwave exposure systems used from 1999 for bioelectromagnetic investigations. The main features of each system's typology are presented and discussed for different types of experiments. From our critical analysis, some key issues have been identified and addressed concerning the importance of reliable dosimetric characterization of exposure systems for different types of in vivo study. Our review of the strengths and weaknesses of each electromagnetic exposure system will be useful for identifying those features necessary for new bioelectromagnetics studies involving exposures to high-frequency fields, typical of those used in new telecommunication technologies, and multiple sources.

Microwave Exposure Systems for In Vivo Biological Experiments: A Systematic Review

In order to determine the whole-body exposure level in small animals inside a reverberation chamber (RC), an ideal electromagnetic (EM) environment has often been assumed inside an RC for numerical dosimetry analyses. In an RC where a strong EM coupling between antennas and animals exists, however, such an EM environment is difficult to be realized, so that it remains unknown whether or not the RC could provide a target dosimetry. In this study, we adopt the Poggio-Miller-Chang-Harrington-Wu-Tsai formulation of the method of moments to directly determine the specific absorption rate (SAR) of a rectangular dielectric phantom placed in an RC, and we demonstrated its validity via comparing the numerical temperature rise with those obtained from experiments. We then demonstrated a nonideal EM environment inside an RC using a prolate spheroid as an exposure target. Furthermore, we performed dosimetry evaluation for multiple rat-shaped tissue-equivalent phantoms inside the RC and determined their whole-body average SARs for many orientations and arrangements of the phantoms. Finally, based on our numerical results, we offered a design rule when using an RC as a whole-body exposure system for small animals.

Dosimetry of a Reverberation Chamber for Whole-Body Exposure of Small Animals

Exposure to a radiofrequency (RF) signal at a specific absorption rate (SAR) of 4 W/kg can increase the body temperature by more than 1 °C. In this study, we investigated the effect of anesthesia on the body temperature of rats after exposure to an RF electromagnetic field at 4 W/kg SAR. We also evaluated the influence of body mass on rats' body temperature. Rats weighing 225 and 339 g were divided into sham- and RF-exposure groups. Each of the resulting four groups was subdivided into anesthetized and non-anesthetized groups. The free-moving rats in the four RF-exposure groups were subjected to a 915 MHz RF identification signal at 4 W/kg whole-body SAR for 8 h. The rectal temperature was measured at 1-h intervals during RF exposure using a small-animal temperature probe. The body temperatures of non-anesthetized, mobile 225 and 339 g rats were not significantly affected by exposure to an RF signal. However, the body temperatures of anesthetized 225 and 339 g rats increased by 1.9 °C and 3.3 °C from baseline at 5 and 6 h of RF exposure, respectively. Three of the five 339 g anesthetized and exposed rats died after 6 h of RF exposure. Thus, anesthesia and body mass influenced RF exposure-induced changes in the body temperature of rats. Bioelectromagnetics. 2020;41:104-112. © 2019 Bioelectromagnetics Society.

Effect of Exposure to a Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field on Body Temperature in Anesthetized and Non-Anesthetized Rats.

Recently, interest in the effects of radio frequency (RF) on biological systems has increased and is partially due to the advancements and increased implementations of RF into technology. As research in this area has progressed, the reliability and reproducibility of the experiments has not crossed multidisciplinary boundaries. Therefore, as researchers, it is imperative to understand the various exposure systems available as well as the aspects, both electromagnetic and biological, needed to produce a sound exposure experiment. This systematic review examines common RF exposure methods for both in vitro and in vivo studies. For in vitro studies, possible biological limitations are emphasized. The validity of the examined methods, for both in vitro and in vivo , are analyzed by considering the advantages and disadvantages of each. This review offers guidance for researchers to assist in the development of an RF exposure experiment that crosses current multidisciplinary boundaries.

A Systematic Review of In Vitro and In Vivo Radio Frequency Exposure Methods

We exposed normal human epidermal keratinocytes to short duration, high frequency, and low amplitude electromagnetic fields, similar to that used by mobile phone technologies. We paid particular attention to the control of the characteristics of the electromagnetic environment generated within a mode stirred reverberation chamber (statistical homogeneity and isotropy of the field and SAR distribution). Two non-thermal exposure conditions were tested on the epidermal cells: 10-min exposure with a field amplitude of 8 V/m, and 30 min with 41 V/m. Corresponding specific absorption rates ranged from 2.6 to 73 mW/kg (continuous wave, 900 MHz carrier frequency). We collected RNA from cells subjected to these conditions and used it for a large-scale microarray screening of over 47000 human genes. Under these conditions, exposure of keratinocytes to the electromagnetic field had little effect; only 20 genes displayed significant modulation. The expression ratios were very small (close to 1.5-fold change), and none of them were shared by the two tested conditions. Furthermore, those assayed using polymerase chain reaction did not display significant expression modulation (overall mean of the exposed samples: 1.20 ± 0.18). In conclusion, the data presented here show that cultured keratinocytes are not significantly affected by EMF exposure.

Human keratinocytes in culture exhibit no response when exposed to short duration, low amplitude, high frequency (900 MHz) electromagnetic fields in a reverberation chamber.

We developed whole-body exposure systems for in-vivo study at cellular (848.5 MHz) and Personal Communication System (PCS, 1,762.5 MHz) frequency, utilizing reverberation chamber. The field uniformities in the test area of the designed chambers were verified by simulation and measurement. In the whole-body exposure environment, Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) distributions inside of mice were calculated using Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) simulation. Key results are presented in this article.

Development and validation of reverberation-chamber type whole-body exposure system for mobile-phone frequency.

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Development and validation of reverberation-chamber type whole-body exposure system for mobile-phone frequency.