The fixation of inorganic carbon into organic material (autotrophy) is a prerequisite for life and sets the starting point of biological evolution. In the extant biosphere the reductive pentose phosphate (Calvin-Benson) cycle is the predominant mechanism by which many prokaryotes and all plants fix CO2 into biomass. However, the fact that five alternative autotrophic pathways exist in prokaryotes is often neglected. This bias may lead to serious misjudgments in models of the global carbon cycle, in hypotheses on the evolution of metabolism, and in interpretations of geological records. Here, I review these alternative pathways that differ fundamentally from the Calvin-Benson cycle. Revealingly, these five alternative pathways pivot on acetyl-coenzyme A, the turntable of metabolism, demanding a gluconeogenic pathway starting from acetyl-coenzyme A and CO2. It appears that the formation of an activated acetic acid from inorganic carbon represents the initial step toward metabolism. Consequently, biosynthese...

Alternative Pathways of Carbon Dioxide Fixation: Insights into the Early Evolution of Life?

The number of sequenced genomes of sulfate reducing organisms (SRO) has increased significantly in the recent years, providing an opportunity for a broader perspective into their energy metabolism. In this work we carried out a comparative survey of energy metabolism genes found in 25 available genomes of SRO. This analysis revealed a higher diversity of possible energy conserving pathways than classically considered to be present in these organisms, and permitted the identification of new proteins not known to be present in this group. The Deltaproteobacteria (and Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii) are characterized by a large number of cytochromes c and cytochrome c-associated membrane redox complexes, indicating that periplasmic electron transfer pathways are important in these bacteria. The Archaea and Clostridia groups contain practically no cytochromes c or associated membrane complexes. However, despite the absence of a periplasmic space, a few extracytoplasmic membrane redox proteins were detected in the Gram-positive bacteria. Several ion-translocating complexes were detected in SRO including H(+)-pyrophosphatases, complex I homologs, Rnf, and Ech/Coo hydrogenases. Furthermore, we found evidence that cytoplasmic electron bifurcating mechanisms, recently described for other anaerobes, are also likely to play an important role in energy metabolism of SRO. A number of cytoplasmic [NiFe] and [FeFe] hydrogenases, formate dehydrogenases, and heterodisulfide reductase-related proteins are likely candidates to be involved in energy coupling through electron bifurcation, from diverse electron donors such as H(2), formate, pyruvate, NAD(P)H, β-oxidation, and others. In conclusion, this analysis indicates that energy metabolism of SRO is far more versatile than previously considered, and that both chemiosmotic and flavin-based electron bifurcating mechanisms provide alternative strategies for energy conservation.

/pdf/a-comparative-genomic-analysis-of-energy-metabolism-in-ny2e393w71.pdf

A Comparative Genomic Analysis of Energy Metabolism in Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Archaea

In methanogenic archaea growing on H2 and CO2 the first step in methanogenesis is the ferredoxin-dependent endergonic reduction of CO2 with H2 to formylmethanofuran and the last step is the exergonic reduction of the heterodisulfide CoM-S-S-CoB with H2 to coenzyme M (CoM-SH) and coenzyme B (CoB-SH). We recently proposed that in hydrogenotrophic methanogens the two reactions are energetically coupled via the cytoplasmic MvhADG/HdrABC complex. It is reported here that the purified complex from Methanothermobacter marburgensis catalyzes the CoM-S-S-CoB-dependent reduction of ferredoxin with H2. Per mole CoM-S-S-CoB added, 1 mol of ferredoxin (Fd) was reduced, indicating an electron bifurcation coupling mechanism: This stoichiometry of coupling is consistent with an ATP gain per mole methane from 4 H2 and CO2 of near 0.5 deduced from an H2-threshold concentration of 8 Pa and a growth yield of up to 3 g/mol methane.

https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/108/7/2981.full.pdf

Coupling of ferredoxin and heterodisulfide reduction via electron bifurcation in hydrogenotrophic methanogenic archaea

Direct, mediator-free transfer of electrons between a microbial cell and a solid phase in its surrounding environment has been suggested to be a widespread and ecologically significant process. The high rates of microbial electron uptake observed during microbially influenced corrosion of iron (Fe(0)) and during microbial electrosynthesis have been considered support for a direct electron uptake in these microbial processes. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of direct electron uptake are unknown. We investigated the electron uptake characteristics of the Fe(0)-corroding and electromethanogenic archaeon Methanococcus maripaludis and discovered that free, surface-associated redox enzymes, such as hydrogenases and presumably formate dehydrogenases, are sufficient to mediate an apparent direct electron uptake. In genetic and biochemical experiments, we showed that these enzymes, which are released from cells during routine culturing, catalyze the formation of H2or formate when sorbed to an appropriate redox-active surface. These low-molecular-weight products are rapidly consumed by M. mari- paludiscells when present, thereby preventing their accumulation to any appreciable or even detectable level. Rates of H 2and formate formation by cell-free spent culture medium were sufficient to explain the observed rates of methane formation from Fe(0) and cathode-derived electrons by wild-type M. maripaludis as well as by a mutant strain carrying deletions in all catabolic hydrogenases. Our data collectively show that cell-derived free enzymes can mimic direct extracellular electron transfer during Fe(0) corrosion and microbial electrosynthesis and may represent an ecologically important but so far overlooked mechanism in biological electron transfer. IMPORTANCE The intriguing trait of some microbial organisms to engage in direct electron transfer is thought to be widespread in nature. Consequently, direct uptake of electrons into microbial cells from solid surfaces is assumed to have a significant im- pact not only on fundamental microbial and biogeochemical processes but also on applied bioelectrochemical systems, such as microbial electrosynthesis and biocorrosion. This study provides a simple mechanistic explanation for frequently observed fast electron uptake kinetics in microbiological systems without a direct transfer: free, cell-derived enzymes can interact with ca- thodic surfaces and catalyze the formation of intermediates that are rapidly consumed by microbial cells. This electron transfer mechanism likely plays a significant role in various microbial electron transfer reactions in the environment.

Extracellular Enzymes Facilitate Electron Uptake in Biocorrosion and Bioelectrosynthesis

Dissimilatory sulphate reduction is the unifying and defining trait of sulphate-reducing prokaryotes (SRP). In their predominant habitats, sulphate-rich marine sediments, SRP have long been recognized to be major players in the carbon and sulphur cycles. Other, more recently appreciated, ecophysiological roles include activity in the deep biosphere, symbiotic relations, syntrophic associations, human microbiome/health and long-distance electron transfer. SRP include a high diversity of organisms, with large nutritional versatility and broad metabolic capacities, including anaerobic degradation of aromatic compounds and hydrocarbons. Elucidation of novel catabolic capacities as well as progress in the understanding of metabolic and regulatory networks, energy metabolism, evolutionary processes and adaptation to changing environmental conditions has greatly benefited from genomics, functional OMICS approaches and advances in genetic accessibility and biochemical studies. Important biotechnological roles of SRP range from (i) wastewater and off gas treatment, (ii) bioremediation of metals and hydrocarbons and (iii) bioelectrochemistry, to undesired impacts such as (iv) souring in oil reservoirs and other environments, and (v) corrosion of iron and concrete. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of SRPs focusing mainly on works published after 2000. The wealth of publications in this period, covering many diverse areas, is a testimony to the large environmental, biogeochemical and technological relevance of these organisms and how much the field has progressed in these years, although many important questions and applications remain to be explored.

A Post-Genomic View of the Ecophysiology, Catabolism and Biotechnological Relevance of Sulphate-Reducing Prokaryotes

In methanogenic Archaea, the final step of methanogenesis generates methane and a heterodisulfide of coenzyme M and coenzyme B (CoM-S-S-CoB). Reduction of this heterodisulfide by heterodisulfide reductase to regenerate HS-CoM and HS-CoB is an exergonic process. Thauer et al. [Thauer, et al. 2008 Nat Rev Microbiol 6:579–591] recently suggested that in hydrogenotrophic methanogens the energy of heterodisulfide reduction powers the most endergonic reaction in the pathway, catalyzed by the formylmethanofuran dehydrogenase, via flavin-based electron bifurcation. Here we present evidence that these two steps in methanogenesis are physically linked. We identify a protein complex from the hydrogenotrophic methanogen, Methanococcus maripaludis, that contains heterodisulfide reductase, formylmethanofuran dehydrogenase, F420-nonreducing hydrogenase, and formate dehydrogenase. In addition to establishing a physical basis for the electron-bifurcation model of energy conservation, the composition of the complex also suggests that either H2 or formate (two alternative electron donors for methanogenesis) can donate electrons to the heterodisulfide-H2 via F420-nonreducing hydrogenase or formate via formate dehydrogenase. Electron flow from formate to the heterodisulfide rather than the use of H2 as an intermediate represents a previously unknown path of electron flow in methanogenesis. We further tested whether this path occurs by constructing a mutant lacking F420-nonreducing hydrogenase. The mutant displayed growth equal to wild-type with formate but markedly slower growth with hydrogen. The results support the model of electron bifurcation and suggest that formate, like H2, is closely integrated into the methanogenic pathway.

https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/107/24/11050.full.pdf

Protein complexing in a methanogen suggests electron bifurcation and electron delivery from formate to heterodisulfide reductase

Hydrogenotrophic methanogenic Archaea are defined by an H2 requirement for growth. Despite this requirement, many hydrogenotrophs are also capable of growth with formate as an electron donor for methanogenesis. While certain responses of these organisms to hydrogen availability have been characterized, responses to formate starvation have not been reported. Here we report that during continuous culture of Methanococcus maripaludis under defined nutrient conditions, growth yields relative to methane production decreased markedly with either H2 excess or formate excess. Analysis of the growth yields of several mutants suggests that this phenomenon occurs independently of the storage of intracellular carbon or a transcriptional response to methanogenesis. Using microarray analysis, we found that the expression of genes encoding coenzyme F420-dependent steps of methanogenesis, including one of two formate dehydrogenases, increased with H2 starvation but with formate occurred at high levels regardless of limitation or excess. One gene, encoding H2-dependent methylene-tetrahydromethanopterin dehydrogenase, decreased in expression with either H2 limitation or formate limitation. Expression of genes for the second formate dehydrogenase, molybdenum-dependent formylmethanofuran dehydrogenase, and molybdenum transport increased specifically with formate limitation. Of the two formate dehydrogenases, only the first could support growth on formate in batch culture where formate was in excess.

Effects of H2 and formate on growth yield and regulation of methanogenesis in Methanococcus maripaludis

Methanogens catalyze the critical methane-producing step (called methanogenesis) in the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. Here, we present the first predictive model of global gene regulation of methanogenesis in a hydrogenotrophic methanogen, Methanococcus maripaludis. We generated a comprehensive list of genes (protein-coding and noncoding) for M. maripaludis through integrated analysis of the transcriptome structure and a newly constructed Peptide Atlas. The environment and gene-regulatory influence network (EGRIN) model of the strain was constructed from a compendium of transcriptome data that was collected over 58 different steady-state and time-course experiments that were performed in chemostats or batch cultures under a spectrum of environmental perturbations that modulated methanogenesis. Analyses of the EGRIN model have revealed novel components of methanogenesis that included at least three additional protein-coding genes of previously unknown function as well as one noncoding RNA. We discovered that at least five regulatory mechanisms act in a combinatorial scheme to intercoordinate key steps of methanogenesis with different processes such as motility, ATP biosynthesis, and carbon assimilation. Through a combination of genetic and environmental perturbation experiments we have validated the EGRIN-predicted role of two novel transcription factors in the regulation of phosphate-dependent repression of formate dehydrogenase-a key enzyme in the methanogenesis pathway. The EGRIN model demonstrates regulatory affiliations within methanogenesis as well as between methanogenesis and other cellular functions.

/pdf/a-systems-level-predictive-model-for-global-gene-regulation-31q3whad85.pdf

A systems level predictive model for global gene regulation of methanogenesis in a hydrogenotrophic methanogen

Methanococcus maripaludis and Regulation of Methanogenesis in and Formate on Growth Yield 2 Effects of H

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Protein complexing in a methanogen suggests electron bifurcation and electron delivery from formate to heterodisulfide reductase

Effects of H2 and formate on growth yield and regulation of methanogenesis in Methanococcus maripaludis

A systems level predictive model for global gene regulation of methanogenesis in a hydrogenotrophic methanogen

Methanococcus maripaludis and Regulation of Methanogenesis in and Formate on Growth Yield 2 Effects of H