This article provides a review of semiconductor based ionising radiation sensors to measure accumulated dose and detect individual strikes of ionising particles. The measurement of ionising radiation (γ-ray, X-ray, high energy UV-ray and heavy ions, etc.) is essential in several critical reliability applications such as medical, aviation, space missions and high energy physics experiments considering safety and quality assurance. In the last few decades, numerous techniques based on semiconductor devices such as diodes, metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) and solid-state photomultipliers (SSPMs), etc., have been reported to estimate the absorbed dose of radiation with sensitivity varying by several orders of magnitude from μGy to MGy. In addition, the mitigation of soft errors in integrated circuits essentially requires detection of charged particle induced transients and digital bit-flips in storage elements. Depending on the particle energies, flux and the application requirements, several sensing solutions such as diodes, static random access memory (SRAM) and NAND flash, etc., are reported in the literature. This article goes through the evolution of radiation dosimeters and particle detectors implemented using semiconductor technologies and summarises the features with emphasis on their underlying principles and applications. In addition, this article performs a comparison of the different methodologies while mentioning their advantages and limitations.

A Review of Semiconductor Based Ionising Radiation Sensors Used in Harsh Radiation Environments and Their Applications

In this paper, we report the recent development of a high-count rate front-end readout ASIC for cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) and/or Si-PIN detectors. The readout circuits are implemented in TSMC 0.35 μm mixed-signal CMOS process. The counting rate is up to 1 Mcps, and the equivalent noise charge is 57 e- +20 e- /pF under the power dissipation of 1.5 mW/channel. The proposed ASIC is well suitable for EPD and other radiation detection application.

SENSROC13: A Mixed-Signal Binary-out Front-End Readout ASIC with Automatic Feedback Reset for CZT/Si-PIN Detectors

A silicon strip detector is a good candidate to detect X-rays whose energy range is 4 to 30 keV with a high-count rate in X-ray diffractometers (XRD) applications. Low-noise and fast readout electronics are required to measure the photon count and the energy resolution. This paper describes the development of a multichannel low-noise front-end readout application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC) for X-ray diffraction applications using silicon strip detectors. The development of such ASIC is divided into two steps. In the first step, a four-channel ASIC prototype is designed to verify the circuit topologies and the fabricated process. Then, a multichannel front-end ASIC is designed in the second step. The ASIC was fabricated in a commercial 350-nm CMOS mixed-signal process with a matric of 4.4 mm × 4.9 mm. Simulation results indicate that the best noise performance of the readout ASIC is 25 e- (rms) plus 4.4 e-/pF. The count rate is up to 0.83 Mcps under the power dissipation of about 5 mW/channel.

Development of a Multichannel Low-Noise Front-end Readout ASIC for a Silicon Strip Detector in X-ray Diffractometers

The globalized and distributed semiconductor supply chain exposes serious security threats to the intellectual property (IP) of front-end readout application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) for radiation detectors. Existing IP protection techniques of A/MS circuits for consumer electronics cannot meet all requirements of the protection of front-end readout ASICs. In this paper, specific hardware security architecture and IP protection circuits for a low-noise front-end readout ASIC are proposed. We demonstrate them on a four-channel binary-output front-end readout ASIC. The die size of the chip is 2.4 mm × 2.5 mm, in which the IP protection circuits occupy 9 % of the whole die area. The simulation results indicate that the IP protection circuits do not change the performance of the original ASIC. We show that strong security levels are achieved in mixed-signal domains.

Design of Hardware Security Architecture and IP Protection Circuits of a Mixed-Signal Front-End Readout ASIC for Radiation Detectors

In this article, we focus on tackling position distortion in Compton imaging systems by proposing a readout circuit based on a current conveyor. Compton imaging is a technique used for reconstructing radiation source images by analyzing the kinematics of Compton scattering. The accurate positioning of detectors is crucial for achieving high-quality imaging results. However, using a conventional readout circuit coupled with a resistive network to reduce the number of channels can introduce positional distortion in the image, and the amount of distortion depends on the gain of the readout circuit. Therefore, the measurable energy range is limited. In our study, we analyze the factors contributing to position distortion caused by electronic devices and present a novel readout circuit based on a current conveyor. This circuit aims to minimize position error and mitigate the effects of electronic characteristics while controlling the gain of the signal. Experimental verification is conducted using gamma-ray sources to evaluate the proposed readout circuit. The results showed that with $2\times $ and $10\times $ gain, the same positional characteristics were found, and the distortion was also greatly improved, approaching the ideal position of the image. It also suggests that the range of measurable energy extends from 80 keV to 1.3 MeV, which could improve the performance of the Compton camera. Overall, our research makes a valuable contribution to the field of Compton imaging. The proposed readout circuit effectively reduces position distortion and expands the measurable energy range, leading to improved performance and reliability of Compton cameras in various applications.

Readout circuit system to improve the spatial resolution and measurable energy range of a Compton camera

A commercial silicon p-i-n (Si-PIN) photodetector is proposed for electronic personal dosimeters (EPDs) for the sake of the detection of low-energy X-rays and/or $\gamma $ -rays. Since the EPD is a portable device supplied with a battery, front-end electronics with small size and low power dissipation are required. This paper presents a fully-customized low-power front-end readout application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) as a solution for this application. The ASIC includes four-channel analog front-ends with a digital interface. Each channel mainly includes a charge sensitive amplifier (CSA), a CR – RC 4 pulse shaper, an output buffer, a discriminator, and a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). An $I^{2}C$ interface and shift registers are designed to control the analog blocks. The modeling of equivalent noise charge (ENC) is discussed to optimize the circuit design. A prototype ASIC is designed in 0.35- $\mu \text{m}$ CMOS mixed-signal 3.3 V process. The die size is 2.4 mm $\times2.4$ mm. The preliminary test results are obtained. The input charge is 0.2–15 fC. The ENC is 119 e−+15.9 e−/pF under the power dissipation of about 1.25 mW/channel. The proposed ASIC can well meet the requirements of the EPD and other radiation detector systems.

SENSROC12: A Four-Channel Binary-Output Front-End Readout ASIC for Si-PIN-Based Personal Dosimeters

The invention relates to a testing circuit and a testing method of equivalent noise charge of front-end readout integrated circuits. The testing method comprises the following steps: firstly, placinga front-end readout chip in a measurement system according to a relation between equivalent noise charge and detector capacitance of the front-end readout chip, and completing electrical test preparation; secondly, achieving different detector capacitance values by using the states of an FPGA control switch, measuring equivalent noise charge values under different capacitance values, and calculating equivalent noise slope through linear fitting; thirdly, breaking an input end bound wire and calculating an equivalent noise charge value under the condition of zero input capacitance; and finally,proposing a front-end readout integrated circuit equivalent noise charge formula obtained by testing. The method is capable of achieving full-automatic testing of equivalent noise charge parameters of the front-end readout integrated circuits, is suitable for testing large batches of front-end readout integrated circuits, is high in efficiency and low in cost, and has scientific guiding significance to performance evaluation of the front-end readout integrated circuits.

Testing circuit and testing method of equivalent noise charge of front-end readout integrated circuits

In this paper, we present the design and characterization of a front-end readout ASIC for Si-PIN detectors with large parasitic capacitance. A fully-customed front-end readout ASIC was implemented in CMOS 0.35 µm mixed-signal process. The test result shows that when the peaking time is 750 ns, the equivalent noise charge is 110 e-+4 e-/pF at the power dissipation of 2 mW/channel. The proposed ASIC has been passed the verification of a stereotyped electronic personal dosimeter.

SENSROC12V4: a Low Noise Programmable Readout ASIC for Si-PIN Detectors

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SENSROC12: A Four-Channel Binary-Output Front-End Readout ASIC for Si-PIN-Based Personal Dosimeters

Testing circuit and testing method of equivalent noise charge of front-end readout integrated circuits

SENSROC12V4: a Low Noise Programmable Readout ASIC for Si-PIN Detectors