Objective: The recent obesity epidemic has been accompanied by a parallel growth in chronic sleep deprivation. Physiologic studies suggest sleep deprivation may influence weight through effects on appetite, physical activity, and/or thermoregulation. This work reviews the literature regarding short sleep duration as an independent risk factor for obesity and weight gain.

Short sleep duration and weight gain : a systematic review

We investigated the association between specific types of physical activity and the risk of type 2 diabetes in a systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies. PubMed, Embase and Ovid databases were searched for prospective studies and randomized trials up to 2nd of March 2015. Summary relative risks (RRs) were calculated using a random effects model. Eighty-one studies were included. The summary RRs for high versus low activity were 0.65 (95 % CI 0.59-0.71, I(2) = 18 %, n = 14) for total physical activity, 0.74 (95 % CI 0.70-0.79, I(2) = 84 %, n = 55) for leisure-time activity, 0.61 (95 % CI 0.51-0.74, I(2) = 73 %, n = 8) for vigorous activity, 0.68 (95 % CI 0.52-0.90, I(2) = 93 %, n = 5) for moderate activity, 0.66 (95 % CI 0.47-0.94, I(2) = 47 %, n = 4) for low intensity activity, and 0.85 (95 % CI 0.79-0.91, I(2) = 0 %, n = 7) for walking. Inverse associations were also observed for increasing activity over time, resistance exercise, occupational activity and for cardiorespiratory fitness. Nonlinear relations were observed for leisure-time activity, vigorous activity, walking and resistance exercise (p nonlinearity < 0.0001 for all), with steeper reductions in type 2 diabetes risk at low activity levels than high activity levels. This meta-analysis provides strong evidence for an inverse association between physical activity and risk of type 2 diabetes, which may partly be mediated by reduced adiposity. All subtypes of physical activity appear to be beneficial. Reductions in risk are observed up to 5-7 h of leisure-time, vigorous or low intensity physical activity per week, but further reductions cannot be excluded beyond this range.

Physical activity and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis

BACKGROUND: Results from longitudinal studies on sleep duration and incidence of depression remain controversial. METHODS: PubMed and Web of Science updated on October 22, 2014 were searched for eligible publications. Pooled relative risks (RRs) with 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated using a random-effects model. RESULTS: Seven prospective studies were included, involving 25,271 participants for short sleep duration and 23,663 participants for long sleep duration. Compared with the normal sleep duration, the pooled RR for depression was 1.31 (95% CI, 1.04-1.64; I(2) = 0%) for the short sleep duration overall. For long sleep duration, the pooled RR was 1.42 (95% CI, 1.04-1.92; I(2) = 0%). The associations between short or long sleep duration and risk of depression did not substantially change in sensitivity and subgroup analyses. No evidence of publication bias was found. CONCLUSION: This meta-analysis indicates that short and long sleep duration was significantly associated with increased risk of depression in adults. Language: en

Sleep duration and depression among adults: a meta-analysis of prospective studies

Sleep duration has been linked to obesity and there is also an emerging literature in animals demonstrating a relationship between the timing of feeding and weight regulation. However, there is a paucity of research evaluating timing of sleep and feeding on weight regulation in humans. The goal of this study was to evaluate the role of sleep timing in dietary patterns and BMI. Participants included 52 (25 females) volunteers who completed 7 days of wrist actigraphy and food logs. Fifty-six percent were "normal sleepers" (midpoint of <5:30 AM) and 44% were "late sleepers" (midpoint of sleep ≥5:30 AM). Late sleepers had shorter sleep duration, later sleep onset and sleep offset and meal times. Late sleepers consumed more calories at dinner and after 8:00 PM, had higher fast food, full-calorie soda and lower fruit and vegetable consumption. Higher BMI was associated with shorter sleep duration, later sleep timing, caloric consumption after 8:00 PM, and fast food meals. In multivariate models, sleep timing was independently associated with calories consumed after 8:00 PM and fruit and vegetable consumption but did not predict BMI after controlling for sleep duration. Calories consumed after 8:00 PM predicted BMI after controlling for sleep timing and duration. These findings indicate that caloric intake after 8:00 PM may increase the risk of obesity, independent of sleep timing and duration. Future studies should investigate the biological and social mechanisms linking timing of sleep and feeding in order to develop novel time-based interventions for weight management.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1038/oby.2011.100

Role of Sleep Timing in Caloric Intake and BMI

Short sleep duration and dietary intake: epidemiologic evidence, mechanisms, and health implications.

WHETHER SHORT SLEEP DURATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH A HIGHER RISK OF OBESITY HAS BEEN A TOPIC OF DEBATE.1–5 Recent review articles6–8 HAVE concluded that the results of previous studies do not lead to a consensus and that the results might have been affected by confounding behavior factors such as diet, smoking, and exercise. Since lack of sleep and the associated psychological stress likely lead to overeating, a preference for fatty food, and a subsequent increase in total energy intake,9 it is assumed that the diet factor is the most influential intermediary variable in the association between sleep duration and obesity.

In a recent study, Patel et al.3 observed the independent association of short sleep duration with obesity after adjusting for total energy intake, which was estimated using a self-administered food frequency questionnaire. They concluded that the prospective relationship of short sleep duration with obesity is independent of total energy intake. Although the association between increased total energy intake and obesity seems quite obvious in theory, studies on nutrition epidemiology have determined that energy intake estimated using food frequency questionnaires often fails to predict obesity status. The estimated energy intake is likely biased, presumably because obese subjects tend to underreport their food intake.10 In fact, Patel et al. failed to show a relationship between the estimated total energy intake and body mass index (BMI).3 Thus, the independent association between short sleep duration and obesity observed by Patel et al. might have been influenced by uncontrolled residual dietary factors.

Several studies have reported that dietary habits, such as preference for fatty food, frequency of snacking, and eating out, better reflect obesogenic dietary behaviors and significantly predict the risk of obesity, as compared with the estimated total energy intake.9,11–15 In another study with Japanese workers, a sleep duration of less than 6 hours was found to be associated with a higher frequency of eating out, snacking, and irregular meal patterns.16 Thus, controlling for the 4 dietary patterns mentioned above rather than using the estimated total energy intake would better explain the association between sleep duration and obesity.

In this study, we tested whether the association between short sleep duration and the incidence of obesity could be explained by the 4 dietary patterns, in addition to other behavior factors, such as smoking and exercise.

/pdf/dietary-patterns-only-partially-explain-the-effect-of-short-2kmwukb75y.pdf

Dietary Patterns Only Partially Explain the Effect of Short Sleep Duration on the Incidence of Obesity

BACKGROUND While heavier weight is known to increase the incidence of dyslipidemia, limited data are available on the relationship between weight gain and its development. METHODS A total of 2647 males were categorized into the following four groups according to the difference between their self-reported weight at 20 years of age and their measured weight in 1994-95: a loss of ≥5% (decrease), loss of <5% or gain of <5% (no change), gain of ≥5 to <15% (increase) and gain of ≥15% (sizable increase). They were followed up until their 2002-03 health examination. Using the 'no change' group as reference, the multivariable-adjusted odds ratio (adjusted for age, body mass index at 20 years of age, physical activity, smoking and alcohol intake) and 95% confidence interval (95% CI) for the incidence of dyslipidemia were determined using logistic regression models. RESULTS A total of 1342 participants developed dyslipidemia during the follow-up period. The 'increase' and 'sizable increase' groups had odds ratios for the incidence of dyslipidemia of 1.97 (95% CI, 1.59-2.45) and 2.68 (2.15-3.34), respectively, demonstrating that there was a significant dose-response association between weight gain since 20 years of age and the incidence of dyslipidemia (P < 0.001 for trend). CONCLUSION These results suggest that dyslipidemia could be prevented by avoiding weight gain in adulthood.

Weight change after 20 years of age and the incidence of dyslipidemia: a cohort study of Japanese male workers

OBJECTIVE Whereas single assessments of cardiorespiratory fitness have been shown to predict lower incidence of type 2 diabetes, there are no data on long-term trends in fitness and risk. We investigated the relationship between long-term trends in fitness and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS A cohort of 4,187 Japanese men free of diabetes completed annual health checkups and fitness tests for estimated maximal oxygen uptake at least four times over 7 years (1979–1985). We modeled the trend in fitness over 7 years for each man using simple linear regression. Men were then divided into quartiles based on the regression coefficient (slope) from the model. During the follow-up period (1985–1999), 274 men developed diabetes. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs for the incidence of diabetes were obtained using the Cox proportional hazards model. RESULTS Men in the lowest quartile of the distribution decreased in fitness over the 7 years (median slope −1.25 ml/kg/min), whereas men in the highest quartile increased in fitness (median slope 1.33 ml/kg/min). With adjustment for age, initial fitness level, BMI, systolic blood pressure, cigarette smoking, alcohol intake, and a family history of diabetes and use of the lowest quartile, the HRs (95% CI) for the second through fourth quartiles were 0.64 (0.46–0.89), 0.40 (0.27–0.58), and 0.33 (0.21–0.50), respectively ( P trend CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that the long-term trend in fitness is a strong predictor of the incidence of type 2 diabetes in Japanese men.

https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/diacare/33/6/1353.full.pdf

Long-Term Trends in Cardiorespiratory Fitness and the Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes

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Dietary Patterns Only Partially Explain the Effect of Short Sleep Duration on the Incidence of Obesity

Weight change after 20 years of age and the incidence of dyslipidemia: a cohort study of Japanese male workers

Long-Term Trends in Cardiorespiratory Fitness and the Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes